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How To Write A Lab Report | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on May 20, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment. The main purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method by performing and evaluating a hands-on lab experiment. This type of assignment is usually shorter than a research paper .

Lab reports are commonly used in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This article focuses on how to structure and write a lab report.

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Table of contents

Structuring a lab report, introduction, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about lab reports.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but they usually contain the purpose, methods, and findings of a lab experiment .

Each section of a lab report has its own purpose.

  • Title: expresses the topic of your study
  • Abstract : summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
  • Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
  • Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
  • Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
  • Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
  • Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
  • References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA )
  • Appendices : contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

Although most lab reports contain these sections, some sections can be omitted or combined with others. For example, some lab reports contain a brief section on research aims instead of an introduction, and a separate conclusion is not always required.

If you’re not sure, it’s best to check your lab report requirements with your instructor.

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Your title provides the first impression of your lab report – effective titles communicate the topic and/or the findings of your study in specific terms.

Create a title that directly conveys the main focus or purpose of your study. It doesn’t need to be creative or thought-provoking, but it should be informative.

  • The effects of varying nitrogen levels on tomato plant height.
  • Testing the universality of the McGurk effect.
  • Comparing the viscosity of common liquids found in kitchens.

An abstract condenses a lab report into a brief overview of about 150–300 words. It should provide readers with a compact version of the research aims, the methods and materials used, the main results, and the final conclusion.

Think of it as a way of giving readers a preview of your full lab report. Write the abstract last, in the past tense, after you’ve drafted all the other sections of your report, so you’ll be able to succinctly summarize each section.

To write a lab report abstract, use these guiding questions:

  • What is the wider context of your study?
  • What research question were you trying to answer?
  • How did you perform the experiment?
  • What did your results show?
  • How did you interpret your results?
  • What is the importance of your findings?

Nitrogen is a necessary nutrient for high quality plants. Tomatoes, one of the most consumed fruits worldwide, rely on nitrogen for healthy leaves and stems to grow fruit. This experiment tested whether nitrogen levels affected tomato plant height in a controlled setting. It was expected that higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer would yield taller tomato plants.

Levels of nitrogen fertilizer were varied between three groups of tomato plants. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer, while one experimental group received low levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and a second experimental group received high levels of nitrogen fertilizer. All plants were grown from seeds, and heights were measured 50 days into the experiment.

The effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were tested between groups using an ANOVA. The plants with the highest level of nitrogen fertilizer were the tallest, while the plants with low levels of nitrogen exceeded the control group plants in height. In line with expectations and previous findings, the effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were statistically significant. This study strengthens the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants.

Your lab report introduction should set the scene for your experiment. One way to write your introduction is with a funnel (an inverted triangle) structure:

  • Start with the broad, general research topic
  • Narrow your topic down your specific study focus
  • End with a clear research question

Begin by providing background information on your research topic and explaining why it’s important in a broad real-world or theoretical context. Describe relevant previous research on your topic and note how your study may confirm it or expand it, or fill a gap in the research field.

This lab experiment builds on previous research from Haque, Paul, and Sarker (2011), who demonstrated that tomato plant yield increased at higher levels of nitrogen. However, the present research focuses on plant height as a growth indicator and uses a lab-controlled setting instead.

Next, go into detail on the theoretical basis for your study and describe any directly relevant laws or equations that you’ll be using. State your main research aims and expectations by outlining your hypotheses .

Based on the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants, the primary hypothesis was that the plants with the high levels of nitrogen would grow the tallest. The secondary hypothesis was that plants with low levels of nitrogen would grow taller than plants with no nitrogen.

Your introduction doesn’t need to be long, but you may need to organize it into a few paragraphs or with subheadings such as “Research Context” or “Research Aims.”

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A lab report Method section details the steps you took to gather and analyze data. Give enough detail so that others can follow or evaluate your procedures. Write this section in the past tense. If you need to include any long lists of procedural steps or materials, place them in the Appendices section but refer to them in the text here.

You should describe your experimental design, your subjects, materials, and specific procedures used for data collection and analysis.

Experimental design

Briefly note whether your experiment is a within-subjects  or between-subjects design, and describe how your sample units were assigned to conditions if relevant.

A between-subjects design with three groups of tomato plants was used. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer. The first experimental group received a low level of nitrogen fertilizer, while the second experimental group received a high level of nitrogen fertilizer.

Describe human subjects in terms of demographic characteristics, and animal or plant subjects in terms of genetic background. Note the total number of subjects as well as the number of subjects per condition or per group. You should also state how you recruited subjects for your study.

List the equipment or materials you used to gather data and state the model names for any specialized equipment.

List of materials

35 Tomato seeds

15 plant pots (15 cm tall)

Light lamps (50,000 lux)

Nitrogen fertilizer

Measuring tape

Describe your experimental settings and conditions in detail. You can provide labelled diagrams or images of the exact set-up necessary for experimental equipment. State how extraneous variables were controlled through restriction or by fixing them at a certain level (e.g., keeping the lab at room temperature).

Light levels were fixed throughout the experiment, and the plants were exposed to 12 hours of light a day. Temperature was restricted to between 23 and 25℃. The pH and carbon levels of the soil were also held constant throughout the experiment as these variables could influence plant height. The plants were grown in rooms free of insects or other pests, and they were spaced out adequately.

Your experimental procedure should describe the exact steps you took to gather data in chronological order. You’ll need to provide enough information so that someone else can replicate your procedure, but you should also be concise. Place detailed information in the appendices where appropriate.

In a lab experiment, you’ll often closely follow a lab manual to gather data. Some instructors will allow you to simply reference the manual and state whether you changed any steps based on practical considerations. Other instructors may want you to rewrite the lab manual procedures as complete sentences in coherent paragraphs, while noting any changes to the steps that you applied in practice.

If you’re performing extensive data analysis, be sure to state your planned analysis methods as well. This includes the types of tests you’ll perform and any programs or software you’ll use for calculations (if relevant).

First, tomato seeds were sown in wooden flats containing soil about 2 cm below the surface. Each seed was kept 3-5 cm apart. The flats were covered to keep the soil moist until germination. The seedlings were removed and transplanted to pots 8 days later, with a maximum of 2 plants to a pot. Each pot was watered once a day to keep the soil moist.

The nitrogen fertilizer treatment was applied to the plant pots 12 days after transplantation. The control group received no treatment, while the first experimental group received a low concentration, and the second experimental group received a high concentration. There were 5 pots in each group, and each plant pot was labelled to indicate the group the plants belonged to.

50 days after the start of the experiment, plant height was measured for all plants. A measuring tape was used to record the length of the plant from ground level to the top of the tallest leaf.

In your results section, you should report the results of any statistical analysis procedures that you undertook. You should clearly state how the results of statistical tests support or refute your initial hypotheses.

The main results to report include:

  • any descriptive statistics
  • statistical test results
  • the significance of the test results
  • estimates of standard error or confidence intervals

The mean heights of the plants in the control group, low nitrogen group, and high nitrogen groups were 20.3, 25.1, and 29.6 cm respectively. A one-way ANOVA was applied to calculate the effect of nitrogen fertilizer level on plant height. The results demonstrated statistically significant ( p = .03) height differences between groups.

Next, post-hoc tests were performed to assess the primary and secondary hypotheses. In support of the primary hypothesis, the high nitrogen group plants were significantly taller than the low nitrogen group and the control group plants. Similarly, the results supported the secondary hypothesis: the low nitrogen plants were taller than the control group plants.

These results can be reported in the text or in tables and figures. Use text for highlighting a few key results, but present large sets of numbers in tables, or show relationships between variables with graphs.

You should also include sample calculations in the Results section for complex experiments. For each sample calculation, provide a brief description of what it does and use clear symbols. Present your raw data in the Appendices section and refer to it to highlight any outliers or trends.

The Discussion section will help demonstrate your understanding of the experimental process and your critical thinking skills.

In this section, you can:

  • Interpret your results
  • Compare your findings with your expectations
  • Identify any sources of experimental error
  • Explain any unexpected results
  • Suggest possible improvements for further studies

Interpreting your results involves clarifying how your results help you answer your main research question. Report whether your results support your hypotheses.

  • Did you measure what you sought out to measure?
  • Were your analysis procedures appropriate for this type of data?

Compare your findings with other research and explain any key differences in findings.

  • Are your results in line with those from previous studies or your classmates’ results? Why or why not?

An effective Discussion section will also highlight the strengths and limitations of a study.

  • Did you have high internal validity or reliability?
  • How did you establish these aspects of your study?

When describing limitations, use specific examples. For example, if random error contributed substantially to the measurements in your study, state the particular sources of error (e.g., imprecise apparatus) and explain ways to improve them.

The results support the hypothesis that nitrogen levels affect plant height, with increasing levels producing taller plants. These statistically significant results are taken together with previous research to support the importance of nitrogen as a nutrient for tomato plant growth.

However, unlike previous studies, this study focused on plant height as an indicator of plant growth in the present experiment. Importantly, plant height may not always reflect plant health or fruit yield, so measuring other indicators would have strengthened the study findings.

Another limitation of the study is the plant height measurement technique, as the measuring tape was not suitable for plants with extreme curvature. Future studies may focus on measuring plant height in different ways.

The main strengths of this study were the controls for extraneous variables, such as pH and carbon levels of the soil. All other factors that could affect plant height were tightly controlled to isolate the effects of nitrogen levels, resulting in high internal validity for this study.

Your conclusion should be the final section of your lab report. Here, you’ll summarize the findings of your experiment, with a brief overview of the strengths and limitations, and implications of your study for further research.

Some lab reports may omit a Conclusion section because it overlaps with the Discussion section, but you should check with your instructor before doing so.

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A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

  • Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
  • References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
  • Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

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Report Guidelines

Writing a good lab report is an art as well as a science. Generally its a matter of detail and style. Resources below should help you get started and provide the details needed to polish that report. Check with your professor as the the appropriate style for your paper or lab report.

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Other institutions have excellent materials that may help as you write your report. Remember to follow the guidelines provided by YOUR INSTRUCTOR as they may differ considerably from those shown below.

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If you need a quick check on common reference styles, one of the following documents should help.

What Is Common Knowledge?

"Common knowledge" -- you don't need to cite where you found "common knowledge". But what is "common knowledge"? Guess what -- it varies. Here is a safe definition, because you don't want to be accused of plagiarism.

Did you know it without looking it up?   If you are just learning about your field, you should err on the side of caution. Better to cite something that didn't need a citation, then to be accused of plagiarism.

Would other people in the class know this?   Common knowledge is based, to some extent, on what the "general practitioner" in the field would know. And what would be general knowledge for a practicing electrical engineer MAY NOT be common knowledge for a freshman engineering student.

Do you find the information in many PUBLISHED (not web pages) resources? Some experts say if you find it in 3 reference tools, no need to cite. Others say 5. If you don't have time to check that the information has been used in many different places, cite it. Play it safe. The citation can be easily removed later and until the paper is in it's final version, you will know where to go back and verify the information.

  • Example 1:   Water boils at 100 °C. (I looked it up to make sure I was right. Still it is common knowledge and I will not cite my source.)
  • Example 2:  The melting point of acacetin is 263 °C. (For an organic chemist, this might be common knowledge. For me it is not. I would cite it for two reasons. First, I had to go find it. Second, I want to show the reader it is valid number.)
  • Example 3: Nixon resigned from the US Presidency. (Common knowledge)
  • Example 4: Nixon resigned from the US Presidency at the urging of ....... (Not so common knowledge, I would cite where I found that information.)
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The Laboratory Report

The Laboratory Report 1,2

Authors: M. C. Nagan and J. M. McCormick

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Introduction

The research paper is the primary means of communication in science. The research paper presents the results of the experiment and interpretation of the data, describes the rationale and design of the experiment, provides a context for the results in terms of previous findings and assesses the overall success of the experiment(s). Scientists working in industrial laboratories do not write as many journal articles as their colleagues in academia, but they routinely write progress reports, which take the same form as a journal article. So no matter what your career goals are, it is important that you become familiar with this style of writing.

There are set rules for preparing a journal article (or a laboratory report). The style requirements vary only slightly from journal to journal, but there are far more similarities than differences in the scientific writing style.  If you are writing an article for publication in a particular journal (or preparing a laboratory report in the style of a particular journal) you should consult the Instructions to Authors section of the journal’s website (this information is also included in the journal’s first issue of each year).

There are several style guides 3, 4   and articles 5 to help scientists and students prepare their manuscripts.  The most useful of these to chemists is the American Chemical Society’s (ACS) ACS Style Guide, which may be found in the Truman library or may be purchased from the ACS web site . Because of the variation in journal styles, and the requirements for a specific course, your instructor will inform you of specific style requirements for his or her class. This guide is based on the Journal of the American Chemical Society style, 6 and is meant to provide a good starting point for writing a laboratory report.  It is not meant to be the definitive style guide; you must adjust your style to your audience and the journal in which your results will be published.

General Editorial Issues

Although we shouldn’t, all of us are swayed by first impressions.  How your paper appears to the journal editor or reviewer is their first impression of your science, and it will color their impression of your results, if you let it.  Nothing is worse than a sloppily prepared paper with no page numbers, a font that can’t be read or which is full of grammatical errors.  Remember that everyone will assume that if you did not take the time to write your paper carefully, you did not take the time to do your science carefully.

The following are some general editorial guidelines to follow that will leave a good first impression with your readers.

General Stylistic Issues

Uniformity of style is the key to scientific communication. The journal editors, the referees who review a manuscript, and the journal readers who are interested in the results presented in a paper all expect certain things to be present in a manuscript and that they are in a certain order.  Just like the sloppy-looking paper, a paper that does not adhere to the expected style reflects poorly on the author, no matter how good the science is.

Organization/Components

Sections should appear in your paper in the order described below. All sections but the title have the section explicitly labeled, usually in bold letters to differentiate it from the rest of the text, and left aligned on the page. A blank line should appear after the last word of the section to separate the various sections, but a line should not be placed after the section title.

Please note that you should not physically assemble your paper in this order. Instead, it is suggested that you compose: a) Materials and Methods, b) Figures, Figure Legends and Tables, c) Results, d) Discussion, e) Conclusions, f) Introduction and Schemes, g) Abstract, and h) Title. Then put all the sections together in the final paper in the order outlined above.

A template is available to help you organize your report.  Click here to learn more about it.

Subsections

It may be helpful to organize sections further into subsections. These subsections should have their own titles that are italicized and followed by a period.

Description of Paper Components

Title/Title Page

A title reflects the emphasis and contents of the paper. It tells the reader the paper’s topic and it also entices the reader to continue reading further. Therefore, it is not uncommon for the title to reveal the results or major conclusions of the experiment. Examples are given below. The title should be on its own page (the title page), left-aligned at the top of the page, in bold letters.  Note that in some journals the title’s font size is 2 points larger than the text (i. e., 14-point, if the rest of the paper is in a standard 12-point font).  However, this is not standardized and you should check with your instructor for which format he/she wants you to follow.

The title must be brief (2 lines maximum) and grammatically correct. Under the title, write your name and your professional address in italics ( Department of Chemistry, Truman State University, 100 East Normal, Kirksville, MO 63501 ).

The abstract is a one-paragraph summary of the paper that is written in the present tense. As the abstract is the only part of the paper that is entered into article databases, it should be able to stand alone, separate from the paper. The first one to three sentences of the abstract should briefly introduce the reader to the problem studied. Next, the scientific approach, major results and primary significance of the findings should be presented. The abstract is generally 150-200 words (less for shorter papers). This section is normally written after the body of the paper. Because the abstract is separate from the paper, all abbreviations should be written out, or defined, and any references should be written out in full.  An example of how a reference might appear in an abstract is

Note that in some journals that inclusion of the title in a reference is not required ( vide infra ).

The introduction should present the scientific problem at hand to the reader. Explain to the reader why the experiment was conducted, how it was designed and perhaps, if appropriate, what was found. Literature that is relevant should be incorporated and will help the reader understand the context of your study. A good rule of thumb is to start at the most general topic and progressively move towards the specific. Here is a general outline for an introduction:

In this section, consider including figures, schemes and equations that complement the text.

While this is similar to the information that you should have written your notebook, the introduction to a paper is different than the background that you included for an experiment (or experiments) in your notebook.  Remember that you are trying to reach a larger, more general audience with your paper, and the introduction must be structured to draw the reader in and help them focus on your important results.

Experimental

The experimental section of your paper should be a logical, coherent recount of the experiment(s) conducted. This section should be complete enough for a trained scientist to pick up your report and replicate your experiment. The experimental section in a laboratory report is more concise than the corresponding section in the laboratory notebook. It should not be a step-by-step procedure of the activities carried out during the laboratory period.

The first paragraph of the experimental section contains information on key chemicals used in the procedure.  When the chemicals are used as received, there will usually be a statement to that effect and further details are not usually necessary.   You will list the chemical supplier’s name and the substance’s purity will be noted in cases where the chemical is hard to find, it is of a special purity or if there is only one supplier.  Do not list lot numbers. If a starting material was synthesized according to a literature procedure, then state this in the opening paragraph and reference the procedure. If purification or drying of the compounds is required, it is described here, also.

The first paragraph often will also list the instruments used to characterize the newly synthesized substances. All instruments and equipment should be specified including the model number of the instrument and the name of the manufacturer (serial numbers are not included). When a spectroscopic or physical method is the focus of the report, it will be described in its own subsection. You are not required to write the experimental in this fashion. 

For common techniques, laboratory textbooks should be referenced. However, if a previously published procedure was modified, then this is stated and only the modifications performed are included. If the procedure is your own, then outline the procedure with the main points, including details that are critical to replicating the experiment. These might include the type and size of your HPLC column, the buffer or the concentrations of chemicals.

When the syntheses of substances are reported, the synthetic procedure used to make each substance is described in its own separate paragraph. The paragraph begins with the name of substance, or its abbreviation (if the abbreviation was defined earlier in the paper), in bold face. If numbers are assigned to the compounds, these are also included (in parentheses). Often the synthesis will be written out, even when a literature procedure was followed. The mass and percent yields must be reported. Some of the new compound’s characteristics are included at the end of the paragraph describing its synthesis. These include: melting point range (and literature value, if known), elemental analysis (both calculated and found), selected peaks from the mass spectrum (with assignments), selected IR peaks (also with assignments), and any NMR peaks with their chemical shift, multiplicity and integration (you will often find the observed coupling quoted and the assignment of the peaks).  The following is an example of how to report a compound’s synthesis.

The experimental section has two quirky wrinkles on the general scientific style.  These are:

In the Results section, the results are presented and summarized in a reader-friendly form. Raw data are not presented here. For instance, it is appropriate to include the average calculated concentration of a solution but not the original absorbance values that were collected from the spectrophotometer; that information is best left in your laboratory notebook.

Graphs and tables often make the data easier to interpret and more understandable (click here to review graph preparation). A graph is presented in the paper as a figure . In general, a graph or table is an appropriate representation of the data when more than 2 or 3 numbers are presented. Data that are presented in the form of a graph or table should be referred to but should not be repeated verbatim in the text as this defeats the purpose of a graph. More information on figures and  tables is presented later.

The Results section also reports comparable literature values for the properties obtained and/or calculated in the paper. Observation of trends in the numerical data is acceptable. However, interpretation of the trend should be saved for the Discussion section.

Remember, do not simply report your numerical results.  The Results section must have a narrative that describes your results.  This narrative can include a description of the data (such as spectra or data in graphs), what problems were encountered during data acquisition (and how they were resolved, or not) and a general description of how the raw data were processed to give the final results ( not a step-by-step description of everything you did).  The reader wants to know what you did, how you did it, what problems you encountered and finally what your results were.  Each of these topics must be addressed in the Results section in a way that is clear, yet concise.

This is the section where the results are interpreted. This section of the paper is analogous to a debate. You need to present your data, convince the reader of your data’s reliability and present evidence for your convictions. First, evaluate your data. Do you have good, mediocre, terrible, or un-interpretable data? Evaluate your results by comparing to literature values or other precedents. Explain what results should have been obtained and whether you obtained these expected values. Note that even if expected results were not obtained, you did not fail. Unexpected results are often the most interesting. Perhaps your hypothesis was not correct. Why is this? What new hypothesis do your data suggest? If you feel that your results are not reliable, you need to explain why. Use statistical analysis or chemical principles to support your claims. Was there a systematic error? Is the error due to the limitations of your apparatus? Does your data look the same to within a standard deviation? Evaluate the statistical significance of your data (click here to review the statistical treatment of data). After validating your data, you should interpret your results; state what you believe your results mean. How do your results help us understand the scientific problem? What do your results mean in the context of the bigger picture of chemistry, or of science? How do your results relate to the concepts outlined in the introduction? Do not assume that your experiment failed or was successful. You need to prove to the reader, with logical arguments and supporting evidence, the value of your study.

The conclusions that you wrote in your laboratory notebook are a good starting point from which to organize your thoughts.  Your paper’s discussion section is structured very similarly to the conclusions section in your notebook, and it might be good idea to review that now (click here to review the structure of the conclusions in the laboratory notebook).

Conclusions

The Conclusions section is typically a one-paragraph summary of your laboratory report. Here you summarize the goal(s) of your experiment, state whether you reached that goal, and describe briefly the implications of your study. Note that in some chemistry sub-disciplines it is acceptable to combine the Discussion and Conclusions sections. Consult your course syllabus or check with your instructor on the specific format to be used in your class.

Acknowledgements

The Acknowledgements section is where you thank anyone who helped you significantly with the project or with the manuscript. For instance, you would thank your laboratory partners if they’re not authors on the paper, anyone who helped with the design of the experiment or the preparation of the paper. You might also include funding sources such as a Truman State University summer scholarship or a National Institutes of Health grant.

Most of the ideas presented in your paper are probably not exclusively yours. Therefore, you should cite other people’s work wherever appropriate. However, you do not need to cite information that is common knowledge or is exclusively your idea. The References section is a compilation of all citations made within the paper. It is not a bibliography and therefore should not list sources that are not directly referred to in the text.

References Format

The format of references varies amongst journals. For your chemistry laboratory reports, you should follow, by default, the ACS guidelines as outlined in The ACS Style Guide and Journal of the American Chemical Society , JACS (all examples given in this handout conform to JACS format). If your professor requires you to conform to a specific journal’s format, look at articles from that journal or refer to the journal’s “Instructions to Authors.” The specifications for most ACS journals are:

Types of References

Articles . Journal articles are the primary source found in laboratory reports. An example is given below. Notice that the authors’ initials are given instead of the first and middle names. Also, there is no “and” before the last author’s name. Some journals require that the article’s title be included in the reference (check with your instructor to see if he/she wants you to use this style).  When included, the article’s title should start with a capital letter but the other words in the title, unless they are proper nouns, should not be capitalized (see below). The journal title is abbreviated (click here for a list of the ACS abbreviations for common journals). Also, the year and the comma after the year are in bold. Lastly, the reference has inclusive pagination (first and last pages are given)

The following are examples of the same journal article with the first given in style where the article’s title is included in the reference, while the second is in the style where the article’s title is omitted.

Books. Books should be cited in the following manner:

Computer Programs. Citations for computer programs vary. If a person in academia wrote the program, there is often a journal-article source. In other cases, the program is simply distributed by a company.

Websites. Journal articles are much preferred over websites. Websites are dynamic and are usually not peer reviewed. One of the only instances when a website is an acceptable reference is when it is referring to a database (however, an article is usually associated with the creation of the database). If you must use a website, the reference should include a title for the site, the author(s), year of last update and URL. It is unacceptable to use a website as a reference for scientific data or explanations of chemical processes.

Tables, Schemes and Figures

Tables, schemes and figures are all concise ways to convey your message.  As you prepare these items for your report, remember to think of your reader.  You want them to derive the maximum amount of information with the minimum amount of work. Pretend to be the reader and ask yourself, “Does this enhance my understanding?”, “Can I find everything?”, “Can I read it without being distracted?” Poorly prepared tables, schemes and figures will reflect badly on your science, and you as a scientist, so think carefully about these items as you prepare your report.

A table is a way to summarize data or ideas in a coherent, grid-like fashion. This is not simply output from a spreadsheet! You should prepare the table in a word-processor so that its formatting matches the rest of your report.  In general, tables have no more than ten rows and columns to avoid overwhelming the reader.  One common exception is in review articles (such as in Chemical Reviews ) where an author is attempting to summarize results from an entire field.  Another common exception is in the reporting of X-ray crystallography data.  These tables have their own special formatting rules, and will not be discussed here.

Tables are referred to in the text as “Table #”. Tables, schemes and figures are labeled separately, with Arabic numbers, in the order they are referred to in the paper. Tables have a table caption, which in some journals appears above the table, while in others it appears below.  In either case, the table caption is always on the same page as the table.

Don’t use lines or boxes in your table except where absolutely necessary. Use spaces between your columns instead (helpful hint: it is better to use your word processor’s table formatting tools than trying to get the columns to line up using tabs or spaces). All column or row headings should have clear subtitles and units if needed (usually in parentheses). Any numbers that are presented should have proper significant figures, and an indication of the error should be shown (click here to review how to report uncertainty in one’s data). An example table is given below.

A scheme is usually a sequence of two or more chemical reactions that together summarize a synthesis. A scheme may also show the steps in a purification with each step or reaction giving the reactants, products, catalysts, and yields.  A scheme that shows a chemical reaction may also show possible intermediates. Note that mechanisms are not usually conveyed using a scheme because they are more complicated and illustrate where electrons are proposed to move.  Mechanisms are most often placed in a figure.

It is a common convention in a scheme to write a bold number underneath chemical species referred to in the text.  Note that for the first occurrence of the bold number in the text, the chemical’s name is given, but after that only the bold number is used to identify it. This method of defining abbreviations for compounds can also be done in the experimental section, if there is no scheme.  This is very useful when a compound’s name is long or complicated.

The one-step yield is usually written to the right of the equation, although it is also proper to write the yield under the arrow.  Note also how the reaction conditions can be summarized (i. e., the first step below), which saves the reader from flipping to the experimental section for these details.

Each scheme also has a caption, which is included under the scheme.  The caption should briefly  summarize what is in the scheme.  If the scheme is from another source, the reference to this source should appear at the end of the caption.

The following is an example of a scheme that might appear in a synthetic paper.  The text below it shows how the scheme could be referred to in the body of the paper.  

Benzamide (1) was refluxed under aqueous acidic conditions for 1 hour to yield benzoic acid (2) . Acid (2) was then refluxed with SOCl 2 to yield benzoyl chloride (3) .

Sometimes a scheme may be used to illustrate a non-chemical process or how an instrument’s components are connected.  These could also be presented as figures, and there is no definitive rule that will tell you when to use a scheme and when to use a figure.  When in doubt, think of the reader and use the method that conveys the most information in the most easily understood format

Figures fall into two broad categories; those that are pictorial representations of concepts that are presented in the text, and those which summarize data. Again, it is critical to your report that your figures are clear, concise and readable, and that they support the arguments that you are making.  Remember that you must refer to and discuss every figure in the text!  If a figure is not mentioned, you don’t need it!

Figures that are pictorial representations of concepts usually appear in the Introduction , but it is also appropriate to include them in the Discussion . Use this type of figure to make your writing more concise (remember the conversion factor: 1 picture = 1 kword).  Remember, humans are very visually oriented and we can grasp complex concepts presented as picture more easily then when they are presented in words or as mathematical formulae.  Some examples of concept figures include:

Graphs are figures that present data.  You use a graph when you have more data than will fit in a table.  The general rules for preparing good figures for your notebook also apply in a laboratory report (click here to review graph preparation).  Formatting tips: do not use colored backgrounds or gridlines, and do not draw a box around the graph.

You may find it more concise to combine all your data into one graph. For example, it may be appropriate to put six lines with absorbance as a function of time, with varying concentrations of a reactant on the same graph rather than constructing six different graphs. However, when doing this, be careful not to over-clutter the graph.

Standard curves should not be included in this section unless that was the primary goal of the experiment. They should be put in the Supporting Information .

Figures have figure captions compiled in the Figure Legend section, located on a separate page at the end of the paper. Journals chose this format because of typographical issues, and it has been retained despite its inconvenience to the reader.  Each figure should appear on its own page in the order is it is discussed in the text. Figure captions appear in the Figure Legends section and do not appear on the same page as the figure. However, in the bottom, right-hand corner of the page the following identifying text appears:

Figure Legends

All figure legends (captions) should be found in the section entitled “Figure Legends”. The format for a figure legend is usually: “Figure number” (italics and bold), a short title (followed by a period) and then a description of what is in the figure. All figure legends are compiled on the same page separated by a blank line. Be sure to define in the caption any symbols used in the figure, and note whether lines that pass through data points are fits, or “guides to the eye”.

Supporting Information

This section (also known as Supplemental Material ) is where you can include information that may be helpful, but not essential, for evaluation of your data. Items in this section may include calibration curves, and spectra (from which you extracted only one absorbance value for your analysis).  Figures or tables of data whose contents were summarized in the text, or which were not critical to the conclusions, are also to be placed in the supporting information.  An example of this type of material is the table of atom positions generated in an X-ray crystal structure.

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Engineering Communication Program

Lab Reports

This document describes a general format for Lab Reports that you can adapt as needed. Lab reports are the most frequent kind of document written in engineering and can count for as much as 25% of a course – yet little time or attention is devoted to how to write them well. Worse yet, each professor wants something a little different. Regardless of variations, however, the goal of lab reports remains the same: document your findings and communicate their significance. With that in mind, we can describe the report’s format and basic components. Knowing the pieces and purpose, you can adapt to the particular needs of a course or professor.

A good lab report does more than present data; it demonstrates the writer’s comprehension of the concepts behind the data. Merely recording the expected and observed results is not sufficient; you should also identify how and why differences occurred, explain how they affected your experiment, and show your understanding of the principles the experiment was designed to examine. Bear in mind that a format, however helpful, cannot replace clear thinking and organized writing. You still need to organize your ideas carefully and express them coherently.

Typical Components:

  • Methods and Materials
  • Experimental Procedure

1. The Title Page: needs to contain the name of the experiment, the names of lab partners, and the date. Titles should be straightforward, informative, and less than ten words (i.e. Not “Lab #4” but “Lab #4: Sample Analysis using the Debye-Sherrer Method”).

2. The Abstract: summarizes four essential aspects of the report: a) the purpose of the experiment (sometimes expressed as the purpose of the report) b) key findings, c) significance and d) major conclusions. The abstract often also includes a brief reference to theory or methodology. The information should clearly enable readers to decide whether they need to read your whole report. The abstract should be one paragraph of 100-200 words (the sample below is 191 words). (See also Components of Documents / Abstracts and Executive Summaries)

This experiment examined the effect of line orientation and arrowhead angle on a subject’s ability to perceive line length, thereby testing the Müller-Lyer illusion. The Müller-Lyer illusion is the classic visual illustration of the effect of the surrounding on the perceived length of a line. The test was to determine the point of subjective equality by having subjects adjust line segments to equal the length of a standard line. Twenty-three subjects were tested in a repeated measures design with four different arrowhead angles and four line orientations. Each condition was tested in six randomized trials. The lines to be adjusted were tipped with outward pointing arrows of varying degrees of pointedness, whereas the standard lines had inward pointing arrows of the same degree. Results showed that line lengths were overestimated in all cases. The size of error increased with decreasing arrowhead angles. For line orientation, overestimation was greatest when the lines were horizontal. This last is contrary to our expectations. Further, the two factors functioned independently in their effects on subjects’ point of subjective equality. These results have important implications for human factors design applications such as graphical display interfaces.

3. The Introduction: is more narrowly focused than the abstract. It states a) the objective of the experiment and b) provides the reader with background to the experiment. State the topic of your report clearly and concisely, in one or two sentences. When determining the objective, be sure to identify the end goal of the experiment itself, not the pedagogical goal of the experiment:

The objective of the experiment was to determine the composition of an unknown sample using Scanning Electron Microscopy. (This is your key result)

The purpose of this experiment was to identify the specific element in a metal powder sample by determining its crystal structure and atomic radius. These were determined using the Debye-Sherrer (powder camera) method of X-ray diffraction.

A good introduction also provides whatever background theory, previous research, or formulas the reader needs to know. Usually, an instructor does not want you to repeat the lab manual, but to show your own comprehension of the problem. For example, the introduction that followed the example above might describe the Debye-Sherrer method, and explain that from the diffraction angles the crystal structure can be found by applying Bragg’s law. If the amount of introductory material seems to be a lot, consider adding subheadings such as: Theoretical Principles or Background.

*Note on Verb Tense: Introductions often create difficulties for students who struggle with keeping verb tenses straight. These two points should help you navigate the introduction:

The experiment is already finished. Use the past tense when talking about the experiment.

  • “The objective of the experiment was …”

The report, the theory and permanent equipment still exist; therefore, these get the present tense:

  • “The purpose of this report is …”
  • “Bragg’s Law for diffraction is …”
  • “The scanning electron microscope produces micrographs …”

4. Methods and Materials (or Equipment): can usually be a simple list, but make sure it is accurate and complete. In some cases, you can simply direct the reader to a lab manual or standard procedure: “Equipment was set up as in CHE 276 manual.”

5. Experimental Procedure: describes the process in chronological order. Using clear paragraph structure, explain all steps in the order they actually happened, not as they were supposed to happen. If your professor says you can simply state that you followed the procedure in the manual, be sure you still document occasions when you did not follow that exactly (e.g. “At step 4 we performed four repetitions instead of three, and ignored the data from the second repetition”). If you’ve done it right, another researcher should be able to duplicate your experiment.

6. Results: are usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures; however, you still need to state all significant results explicitly in verbal form, for example:

Using the calculated lattice parameter gives, then, R = 0.1244 nm.

Graphics need to be clear, easily read, and well labeled (e.g. Figure 1: Input Frequency and Capacitor Value). An important strategy for making your results effective is to draw the reader’s attention to them with a sentence or two, so the reader has a focus when reading the graph.

In most cases, providing a sample calculation is sufficient in the report. Leave the remainder in an appendix. Likewise, your raw data can be placed in an appendix. Refer to appendices as necessary, pointing out trends and identifying special features.

7. The Discussion is the most important part of your report, because here, you show that you understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it. Explain. Analyse. Interpret. Some people like to think of this as the “subjective” part of the report. By that, they mean this is what is not readily observable. This part of the lab focuses on a question of understanding “What is the significance or meaning of the results?” To answer this question, use both aspects of discussion, a) Analysis and b) Interpretation.

Since none of the samples reacted to the Silver foil test, sulfide, if present at all, does not exceed a concentration of approximately 0.025 g/l. It is therefore unlikely that the water main pipe break was the result of sulfide-induced corrosion.

b) Interpretation: What is the significance of the results? What ambiguities exist? What questions might we raise? Find logical explanations for problems in the data:

Although the water samples were received on 14 August 2000, testing could not be started until 10 September 2000. It is normally desirably to test as quickly as possible after sampling in order to avoid potential sample contamination. The effect of the delay is unknown.

More particularly, focus your discussion with strategies like these:

i) Compare expected results with those obtained: If there were differences, how can you account for them? Saying “human error” implies you’re incompetent. Be specific; for example, the instruments could not measure precisely, the sample was not pure or was contaminated, or calculated values did not take account of friction.

ii) Analyze experimental error: Was it avoidable? Was it a result of equipment? If an experiment was within the tolerances, you can still account for the difference from the ideal. If the flaws result from the experimental design explain how the design might be improved.

iii) Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues: Often undergraduate labs are intended to illustrate important physical laws, such as Kirchhoff’s voltage law, or the Müller-Lyer illusion. Usually you will have discussed these in the introduction. In this section move from the results to the theory. How well has the theory been illustrated?

iv) Relate results to your experimental objective(s): If you set out to identify an unknown metal by finding its lattice parameter and its atomic structure, you’d better know the metal and its attributes.

v) Compare your results to similar investigations: In some cases, it is legitimate to compare outcomes with classmates, not to change your answer, but to look for any anomalies between the groups and discuss those.

vi) Analyze the strengths and limitations of your experimental design: This is particularly useful if you designed the thing you’re testing (e.g. a circuit).

8. The Conclusion: can be very short in most undergraduate laboratories. Simply state what you know now for sure, as a result of the lab:

Example: The Debye-Sherrer method identified the sample material as nickel due to the measured crystal structure (fcc) and atomic radius (approximately 0.124 nm).

Notice that, after the material is identified in the example above, the writer provides a justification. We know it is nickel because of its structure and size. This makes a sound and sufficient conclusion. Generally, this is enough; however, the conclusion might also be a place to discuss weaknesses of experimental design, what future work needs to be done to extend your conclusions, or what the implications of your conclusion are. (See also Components of Reports / Conclusions)

9. References: include your lab manual and any outside reading you have done. (See Online Handbook / Accurate Documentation for an appropriate way to reference in your field)

10. Appendices typically include such elements as raw data, calculations, graphs pictures or tables that have not been included in the report itself. Each kind of item should be contained in a separate appendix. Make sure you refer to each appendix at least once in your report. For example, the results section might begin by noting: “Micrographs printed from the Scanning Electron Microscope are contained in Appendix A.”

Useful Further Reading: Porush, D. A Short Guide to Writing About Science. Toronto: HarperCollins, 1995. Although this book uses the “scientific article” as the basic form for writing, it essentially views that as an extended lab report. Therefore, it has useful chapters on each of the sections of a lab report.

Our pages in the Online Handbook / Components of Documents section may also be useful.

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  • The Laboratory Report

Description

Your job as an engineer will often require you to interpret the results of laboratory tests.  You will often be asked to deliver your results and interpretations in the form of a formal report. Through such reports, your managers, laboratory directors, and other professional colleagues will learn from what you have done, and they will form their opinions of you.  You will want them to trust your judgment to design and carryout experiments, conduct tests, select the most pertinent findings and to present those findings in clear and concise language.

ChE 253M has a “substantial writing component” and one major goal of the class is to how to write a professional laboratory report.  Our goal in this undertaking is to teach you how to produce a professional engineering report that would be acceptable to any manager or agency. You should leave this course with the ability to produce a report that you can be confident to submit and one that you can modify and adapt for any application.

Write the bulk of your laboratory report in the 3rd person. Use the past tense, except to describe equipment, to express facts that are always true or describe products that still exist. Avoid use of personal pronouns.  The abstract of the report is to be written in active voice For a passive/active voice tutorial and a self-test, see the class web site . More writing guidelines are available on the communications on web site and in the FAQs section but the applicable formatting rules for 253M are those provided here.

The laboratory report has 10 sections:

1. Front Matter

The front matter includes a title page, a table of contents, a list of tables, and a list of figures.

2. Abstract

The abstract is a very important part of the report and the section most commonly read. It is a condensation of the subject matter. It gives a quantitative summary of your procedure, results, and conclusions. Read more on how to write a good abstract .

3. Introduction

The introduction answers the question: What were your goals? A good introduction also clearly states the purpose or objectives of the undertaking, summarizes the basic approach to the problem and gives an overview of the procedures. The introduction may also include pertinent information about background and previous work.

The methods section answers the questions: What was measured? How was it measured? What was the theoretical basis of the experiment?

This section briefly describes the apparatus and the procedures used to carry out the experiment. A discussion of the theory should also be included. There is no need to restate the procedure published in the laboratory handout. You are free to reference that document and simply describe any differences between that published procedure and what you actually did when you collected the data that you will report.

5.  Sample Calculations

This section should answer the question: How were these data reduced and analyzed to provide answers.  List the equations that represent the theoretical result and apply the analysis to a representative piece of your data.  The reader will refer to this section to learn how the data were reduced and how the quantitative results were derived. This section is to represent the result of a group effort in all of your reports and it can be identical in the reports of each member of your group.  With the exception of the first report, which is to be completed in its entirety as a group project, this is the end of the group effort.  All subsequent sections, all graphs and figures, etc. are to be generated soley by the individual who is the author of the report.

The results section answers the questions: What data were collected? The results section is a discussion that links your data analysis to your conclusions. It develops conclusions with reference to the figures, graphs , and tables of your analysis.

The safety section answers the question: What safety issues need to be considered when carrying out this procedure. Each of the ChE 253M experiments has some unique and important safety issues that need to be considered and there are some safety issues that are common to several of the experiments.

8. Conclusions/Recommendations

The conclusions and recommendations section answers the questions: What were the tasks? What were the most important conclusions and recommendations developed from each task?

The results section has already stated the report’s conclusions, but they are buried in the discussion. This final section re-presents them succinctly so that they are accessible to someone reading quickly.  The quantitative results should also appear in the abstract.

9. References

The text should cite all sources used, including the lab handout. References should be listed at the end of the appendix, using APA format. There are several on line applications that will generate a reference list for you.  NoodleBiB (UT Library)  is one example.  However, these applications are not always up to date and they are not “fool proof”.   Examples of correct formatting of references are provided in the “X-Files” document that you were given on the first day of class.  This document is also posted on the class web site. Your assignment is to report the references in APA format.  The best thing to do is go straight to the source for instructions. Listed below is a link to a website tutorial provided by the American Psychological Association

http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/basics-tutorial.aspx

10. Appendices

The appendices of the laboratory report generally include raw data, perhaps a fuller description of the apparatus, fuller descriptions of the procedure, derivations of theory, and any unique assignments specified by your instructor.

Laboratory Reports vary in length depending on the type of experiment that was carried out. They typically contain between 1500-3000 words of text, from the “Introduction” through the “Conclusions/Recommendations.” This is not a word “limit”; it is a guide. If your 253M report is 6000 words long, you are definitely being too verbose. Conversely, it is unlikely that you can write a professional report for the 253M experiment in less than 1000 words! The number of pages will also vary, depending on how many figures and tables you include. The final version of the laboratory report should be single-spaced.

Template for the Laboratory Report Download 2015 version

Follow the Laboratory Report template in preparing your assignment. Instructions are in square brackets [like this]. If you cut-and-paste your writing onto a template, it helps if you (1) save a copy of your work as “text only,” and (2) transfer the “text only” version to the template. This way, you avoid importing new formatting.

Binding/Submission:

The ChE 253M reports must be bound prior to submission. Low cost binding service is available in the AiChE chapter office in CPE 2.706A.

Lab reports are due at 1:00 PM on the day that your team meets to do the next experiment. This means that you will have two and sometimes three weeks to write the report. To Late reports will not be accepted and will earn a grade of zero! Graded reports will be returned to you two weeks from the day they are turned in, or your next scheduled class day, whichever is later. In order to allow you to get feedback on your performance, we will make every attempt to return your first lab report early, within ten days after it is turned in.

Please turn in one bound copy of the report and send a digital copy of the report as an e-mail attachment to [email protected] . [Note that this is NOT the email address you should use to communicate with Prof. Willson. This address is used ONLY to collect digital copies of the reports] The file should be in the MSWord format (.docx or .doc file type). Please enter your information into the subject line of your e-mail IN THIS EXACT COMMA-SEPARATED FORMAT: Last name, first name, UT EID, Experiment #. These files will be processed by plagiarism search software

The ChE 253M Laboratory Report

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Writing Lab Reports

Writing lab reports follows a straightforward and structured procedure. It is important to recognize that each part of a lab report is important, so take the time to complete each carefully. A lab report is broken down into eight sections: title, abstract, introduction, methods and materials, results, discussion, conclusion, and references. 

  • Ex: "Determining the Free Chlorine Content of Pool Water"
  • Abstracts are a summary of the experiment as a whole and should familiarize the reader with the purpose of the research. 
  • Abstracts will always be written last, even though they are the first paragraph of a lab report. 
  • Not all lab reports will require an abstract. However, they are often included in upper-level lab reports and should be studied carefully. 
  • Why was the research done or experiment conducted?
  • What problem is being addressed?
  • What results were found?
  • What are the meaning of the results?
  • How is the problem better understood now than before, if at all?

Introduction

  • The introduction of a lab report discusses the problem being studied and other theory that is relevant to understanding the findings. 
  • The hypothesis of the experiment and the motivation for the research are stated in this section. 
  • Write the introduction in your own words. Try not to copy from a lab manual or other guidelines. Instead, show comprehension of the experiment by briefly explaining the problem.

Methods and Materials

  • Ex: pipette, graduated cylinder, 1.13mg of Na, 0.67mg Ag
  • List the steps taken as they actually happened during the experiment, not as they were supposed to happen. 
  • If written correctly, another researcher should be able to duplicate the experiment and get the same or very similar results. 
  • The results show the data that was collected or found during the experiment. 
  • Explain in words the data that was collected.
  • Tables should be labeled numerically, as "Table 1", "Table 2", etc. Other figures should be labeled numerically as "Figure 1", "Figure 2", etc. 
  • Calculations to understand the data can also be presented in the results. 
  • The discussion section is one of the most important parts of the lab report. It analyzes the results of the experiment and is a discussion of the data. 
  • If any results are unexpected, explain why they are unexpected and how they did or did not effect the data obtained. 
  • Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the design of the experiment and compare your results to other similar experiments.
  • If there are any experimental errors, analyze them.
  • Explain your results and discuss them using relevant terms and theories.
  • What do the results indicate?
  • What is the significance of the results?
  • Are there any gaps in knowledge?
  • Are there any new questions that have been raised?
  • The conclusion is a summation of the experiment. It should clearly and concisely state what was learned and its importance.
  • If there is future work that needs to be done, it can be explained in the conclusion.
  • If using any outside sources to support a claim or explain background information, those sources must be cited in the references section of the lab report. 
  • In the event that no outside sources are used, the references section may be left out. 

Other Useful Sources

  • The Lab Report
  • Sample Laboratory Report #2
  • Some Tips on Writing Lab Reports
  • Writing a Science Lab Report
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Writing Engineering Reports

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Technical Reports are documentation resulting from funded research (which is why they are sometimes called research reports).  Seldom commercially published and having limited distribution makes the report literature difficult both to identify and locate.  The following resources provide either the full text of reports or provide a means of identifying what reports existed at some point.   

United States:

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  • Use Google or other web search engine  
  • Science.gov Science.gov searches over 60 databases and over 2200 selected websites from 15 federal agencies, offering 200 million pages of authoritative U.S. government science information including research and development results. Science.gov is governed by the interagency Science.gov Alliance.  
  • SciTech Connect SciTech Connect includes technical reports, bibliographic citations, journal articles, conference papers, books, multimedia, software, and data information sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) through a grant, contract, cooperative agreement, or similar type of funding mechanism from the 1940s to today.  An online tutorial  about using the browse feature is available. ​
  • Technical Report Archive and Image Library (TRAIL)  This project identifies, acquires, catalogs, digitizes and provides unrestricted access to U.S. government agency technical reports.    
  • USA.gov    Find U.S. documents and information by agency and/or topic.   USA.gov searches across all federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial government websites.   

International 

  • Open Grey   Index to over 700,000 items of gray literature produced in Europe in the areas of science, technology, biomedicine, economics, social sciences and humanities.  The full text of the documents are not in the database, rather the database will tell you where to find it.    
  • World Wide Science   This database permits a single query to search multiple scientific sources around the world.  The query is translated into the appropriate language for each source.  The search results are displayed in relevance order in the language of the original query.  For each entry a link is provided to the original site for the document where the searcher will find more information about the document, and in some cases, the full text of the document.  Ten languages are currently supported:  Arabic, Chinese, English, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish.  Contents varies depending on the source providing the information but gray literature such as technical reports and government publications are common.
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5.2 Executive Summary and Abstract

An Executive Summary is a short document that details the results of a laboratory experiment. It may appear as a stand-alone document or included within a longer report. The reader should be able to quickly read it and obtain important results and conclusions from an experiment.

Individual sections of an Executive Summary are not divided by subheadings. As a stand-alone document, the length of text should not exceed one page with an additional 1-2 pages for figures or tables.

When included as part of a Lab Report, the summary should not include or reference tables and figures.

It is acceptable to repeat information from the rest of the lab report; however, the summary should not include any new information or conclusions that are not already stated elsewhere. For this reason, it is advisable to write the executive summary last , after all other sections of the document are drafted.

Many technical reports include a short abstract at the beginning of the report. Abstracts are typically written to enable the reader to determine if they want to read the report in its entirety. They are extremely concise version of the full report. They do not present any information that is not included in the full report.

An abstract is written in introduction–body–conclusion paragraph form and should not include subsections. Abstracts should not include any images, graphs, tables, or sample calculations. The parts of an abstract are related to their counterparts in the full lab report, but are abbreviated versions.

Executive Summary

Background & Purpose: The background should be a paragraph that contains the goals of the lab and briefly explains what significance it has to the scientific community.

  • State the objective of the lab exercise. Though this is provided in the lab documents, the purpose should be restated in your own words. The purpose should be specific and focus on scientific principles. Example: In this lab, four types of beams were tested to determine which has the greatest strength-to-weight ratio (grams-pounds).
  • In a sentence or two, explain why the purpose of the lab is important to the scientific community. What is the motivation behind performing this lab? Example: ABC Company wants to determine whether lighting is better in parallel or in series. The results of the lab will allow the team to make a recommendation for the company.

Results and Analysis: In 1-2 paragraphs, summarize the most important results and trends in the experiment. In a stand-alone document, figures and tables in an appendix can be referenced to support your analysis.

  • State results and content independent of your own influence. These observations should be relevant to the purpose of the lab experiment.
  • Describe trends and implications by referencing your results. What can you infer from your data? Example: Increasing wind speeds caused the turbine to produce more power, as shown in Table 4. To maximize power production, turbines should be placed where they will receive the strongest winds.
  • Briefly describe possible errors and discuss potential solutions.

Conclusion & Recommendations: The final paragraph should emphasize the conclusions drawn from the results and how the results can be used in your scenario.

  • State your conclusions based on the results of the lab.
  • Provide recommendations for the scenario posed at the beginning of the lab procedure, based on the lab results. Example: Based on the results of the procedure, the team recommends a tapered channel with a toothed check valve that leads to an oval detection well.

Appendices: Create a new appendix for each category of content.

  • Appendix A: Experimental Data
  • Appendix B: Equations and Sample Calculations
  • Arrange appendices in the order in which they are referenced within your summary. Every appendix must be referenced within the document.
  • Start figure and table labels at 1 in each appendix. Each numeric label will be preceded by the appendix letter and a period with no spaces (e.g., A.1, or B.3) . Labels should be formatted as described in Using Graphics and Visuals Effectively .
  • Organize and format each appendix neatly. Appendices should not be storage for messy or extraneous information.
  • Place any necessary figures and tables in an appendix. Executive summaries should not have figures and tables within the summary. It is acceptable to choose the most important content to limit the figures and tables to 1-2 pages.

Introduction: Briefly describe the goals of the lab and explain its significance to the scientific community.

Experimental Methodology: An abstract will typically be read by someone who is not familiar with the experiment. Mention the methods used in your experiment.

  • Include a brief description of the experiment. Example: The efficiency of each design was measured by retrieving data from the Arduino and analyzing the energy usage in MATLAB.
  • Discuss what data was collected and how you collected it.
  • Do not discuss specific equipment unless it is unique and vital to the purpose of the experiment.

Results: Provide a summary of the results of the experiment in a few sentences.

  • Present the final, processed results and observations of the experiment. Example: A circular check valve with tapered channels leading to an ovalur detection well required the smallest fluid sample to fill the detection well.
  • State any possible sources of error.
  • Do not include or reference any raw data, calculations, graphs, or tables.

Conclusion: Summarize the conclusions and recommendations from the experiment in 1-2 sentences.

  • State the conclusions that can be drawn from the results of the experiment and connect these conclusions to the purpose as described in the introduction.
  • Briefly describe possible solutions to the limitations of the experiment and suggest any further studies that may be meaningful.

Additional Resources

University of Toronto Engineering Communication Program: Abstracts and Executive Summaries University of Waterloo: Executive Summaries USC Research Guides: Appendices

Fundamentals of Engineering Technical Communications Copyright © by Leah Wahlin is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Chemical Engineering Laboratory 1 Lab Manual

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You are required to carry out eight experiments during the first year. Seven out of eight experiments must be written up and hand in, and will be assessed as described below. You are required to give an oral presentation for one laboratory report, in which the title will be one of the experiments, specified by subject leader. You will be working in group of four/five and details of working arrangements are given on the laboratory sheets together with the timetable. All reports must be submitted in group (one report only for each experiment).

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How to Write a Formal Lab Report

How to write a formal laboratory report.

The laboratory report is a formal report of the experiment performed. The report conveys what you have done in a concise, organized and easy to read fashion. It should be written in the past tense using the passive (3rd person neutral) voice. The following sections should be clearly labeled and contain the appropriate information in paragraph style (use of complete sentences: using correct grammar and sentence structure are required). Keep in mind that the lab report must be written so that another competent peer can reproduce the experiment. Laboratory reports must be submitted on Blackboard before the deadline to be accepted for grading. You may submit a draft to your instructor at least one week before the deadline in order to receive feedback.

Title Page: Required for submission. Include a header on each page with your name (last, first). Include:

Title of experiment

Student name

Group member names

Course Title and Code

Instructor Name

Submission Date

Abstract: Summarizes the report. This section should not be longer than 250 words. Include a short statement of the background information or main topic of the lab report. Clearly state the purpose of the study. Report the main result verbally and numerically and state whether the experiment gave the expected results and if not, why. I brief mention of the major points of your discussion should also be included. * Write this section last! It is a summary which cannot be done until all of the work of the experiment and writing of other sections is finished.*

Introduction: Gives background information for understanding the rest of the report. About one page. Keep in mind your audience and organize your thoughts in a logical fashion. Include a broad description of the general topic of the report that includes definitions and any pertinent equations with citations. Progressively narrow your explanations to a more specific discussion of the studied topic including again any definitions or equations. The last paragraph should be a brief description of the current experiment as it pertains to the theory described. Any balanced chemical equations or mathematical equations need to be centered on a new line and numbered on the right hand side. Any figures (charts or diagrams of equipment) must be numbered with a caption. All definitions, equations, or information that was found from another source such as the textbook, laboratory document from Blackboard, or internet sites MUST be referenced with a number. Do not include procedure information.

Procedure: Reference the laboratory handout on Blackboard. Write in paragraph form, in past tense, 3 rd person neutral. Include actual values used in the experiment (masses of reagents, volumes of solutions, etc.) and any changes from the lab manual. Do not repeat the handout. Write in your words and be specific in your description. Do not include any calculations, observations, results, or data analysis information.

Data: Use charts, graphs, and tables to organize your data in clearly labeled sections. Number and title every table. Have a caption for every chart or graph. An example of the calculations or formulas should be provided. Any outside information must be referenced properly. Do not include any interpretation or opinions.

Results & Discussion: This is the most important section of the report and should be at least one page long. State the main result of the lab with error and compare it to expected values. Include % error or % yield if appropriate and use those results to discuss the purity of the products. Discuss any differences between the expected result and your result and identify sources of error (human error and equipment error are not acceptable sources; be specific). Interpret the results by explaining what happened during the experiment on the molecular level. Do not recite the procedure again! Reference the theory in the introduction to help explain what happened and why. Did you expect a reaction to produce a gas? Did you observe bubbles or other evidence of a gas? What gas would be produced and why?

Conclusion: Summarize the main ideas of the discussion and restate the result of the experiment. Identify a broader application of the topic with a literature citation. Did your experiment add anything new, or justify a known principle or law? How does this experiment relate to the larger world of science?

References: Number and order references according to when they were used in the text. Cite sources using ACS or APA format. See the Writing for Chemistry guide in Blackboard for help.

Gwinnett Technical College - revised 11/2013

Parts of a Lab Report

PARTS OF A LAB REPORT

Now that you have completed an experiment and have collected all of the necessary information in your lab notebook and any supplementary data from analytical instruments, you need to write up your results in a lab report.  The purpose of writing reports you've performed is to communicate exactly what occurred in an experiment or observation and to clearly discuss the results.

The abstract is a one or two paragraph concise, yet detailed summary of the report. It should contain these four elements:

  • What the objectives of the study were (the central question);
  • Brief statement of what was done (Methods);
  • Brief statement of what was found (Results);
  • Brief statement of what was concluded (Discussion).

Often, the abstract is the last piece of the report written.

Introduction

This section tells the reader why you did the experiment. Include background information that suggest why the topic is of interest and related findings. It should contain the following:

  • Descriptions of the nature of the problem and summaries of relevant research to provide context and key terms so your reader can understand the experiment.
  • A statement of the purpose, scope, and general method of investigation in your study. Express the central question you are asking.
  • Descriptions of your experiment, hypothesis(es), research questions. Explain what you are proposing for certain observations.

Experimental (Materials and Methods)

This section should describe all experimental procedures in enough detail so that someone else could repeat the experiment. Some guidelines to follow:

  • Explain the general type of scientific procedure you used to study the problem.
  • Describe what materials, subjects, and equipment you used  (Materials) .
  • Explain the steps you took in your experiment and how did you proceed (Methods).
  • Mathematical equations and statistical tests should be described.

The results section should present data that you collected from your experiment and summarize the data with text, tables, and/or figures. Effective results sections include:

  • All results should be presented, including those that do not support the hypothesis.
  • Statements made in the text must be supported by the results contained in figures and tables.

The discussion section should explain to the reader the significance of the results and give a detailed account of what happened in the experiment. Evaluate what happened, based on the hypothesis and purpose of the experiment. If the results contained errors, analyze the reasons for the errors. The discussion should contain:

  • Summarize the important findings of your observations.
  • For each result, describe the patterns, principles, relationships your results show. Explain how your results relate to expectations and to references cited. Explain any agreements, contradictions, or exceptions. Describe what additional research might resolve contradictions or explain exceptions.
  • Suggest the theoretical implications of your results. Extend your findings to other situations or other species. Give the big picture: do your findings help us understand a broader topic?

A brief summary of what was done, how, the results and your conclusions of the experiment.  (Similar to the Abstract.)

A listing of published works you cited in the text of your paper listed by author or however the citation style you are using requires the citation to be listed.

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  21. Chemical Engineering Laboratory 1 Lab Manual

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