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The Inside Story on 5 Organized Crime Cases and the People Who Brought Them to Justice

By Kirsten Slyter on 10/18/2021

image of a board with pictures and clues trying to solve organized crime

There’s no question that organized crime is a fascinating topic. Hit Hollywood depictions like Goodfellas , The Departed and The Sopranos have firmly established themselves as a part of American popular culture. While these depictions may paint individual members of organized crime rings in a sometimes-favorable light, organized crime remains a substantial problem that leads to a lot of suffering for those caught up in their web.

These organizations are committed to ill-gotten profits and power. Some boast huge numbers and often the takedowns of even key figures aren’t enough to stop the group from carrying on. It takes a lot of resources, manpower and smarts on the law enforcement side to catch and convict these criminals.

In this article, we’ll walk through some well-known—and not-so-well-known—organized crime cases where law enforcement was able to get the upper hand and explain how they did it.

What is organized crime?

But first, let’s start with defining organized crime. According to the FBI, organized crime is the associations of individuals who operate illegally to gain power, influence and wealth. Organized crime enterprises can be organized by clans, networks or hierarchies. They’re often involved in crimes like:

  • Drug trafficking
  • Human trafficking
  • Firearms trafficking
  • Illegal gambling
  • Migrant smuggling

Though groups organized via local ethnic ties (like the Mafia or the Westies) are well-known, criminal enterprises can do their work all across the world thanks to international ties and the Internet.

Often, the FBI in the U.S works to breakdown international and national organized crime enterprises by using the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations statue (RICO act). Passed in 1970, this act gives authorities more leverage to pursue civil and criminal penalties for racketeering activity against groups of people working as part of an on-going criminal enterprise.

In the cases that follow, you’ll see more specific actions taken by law enforcement to catch and convict individuals in organized crime enterprises.

A closer look at 5 fascinating organized crime cases

1. the st. valentine’s day massacre and capone’s downfall.

February 14, 1929 , is known as the date of one of the most violent events ever to occur in Chicago gang history. The infamous Al Capone and George “Bugs” Moran ran opposing enterprises on the north and south sides of Chicago, respectively. Capone made huge sums of money through bootlegging, speakeasies, gambling and prostitution through the 1920s and sought to consolidate the gangs of Chicago to increase his personal wealth.

On February 14, seven members of Moran’s gang were brutally gunned down in a parking garage in the Lincoln Park neighborhood. Over 70 rounds of ammunition were fired. When police arrived at the scene, only one gang member was found alive. He later succumbed to his injuries in the hospital.

Eyewitness reported that two men dressed as police officers and two in plain clothes entered the garage and pretended to arrest the men in the garage, but instead shot them. Moran himself was meant to be at the garage, but on the way, he saw the men dressed as police officers and decided to stop for coffee instead, saving his own life.

Though no one was ever brought to trial for the murders, Al Capone was eventually put in prison for income tax evasion thanks to diligent forensic accounting by special agent Frank Wilson and other members of the Intelligence Unit of the Internal Revenue Service. Wilson and the others reviewed over two million documents to find several ledgers containing income that Capone had not reported. He was convicted and sentence to eleven years in prison, in addition to $80,000 in fines and court costs.

2. Operation Trojan Shield

Operation Trojan Shield was put into effect in just 2018. The international effort , coordinated by the FBI, resulted in more than 800 arrests. A search warrant affidavit filled by an FBI Special Agent in San Diego allowed the FBI to identify over 300 transnational criminal organization using a platform called ANOM, run with collaboration by the FBI.

Traffickers and criminals used ANOM devices and platforms to send encrypted messages planning and coordinating their activities. They didn’t know copies of those same messages were sent to the FBI, the Australian Federal Police and other agencies. Those agencies gathered over 27 million messages.

This international effort was able to show connections around the world. Because of the messages, Australian Federal Police were able disrupt 20 threats to kill people. Authorities in Europe seized more than 8 tons of cocaine, 22 tons of cannabis and several tons of other drugs, along with 55 luxury vehicles and over $48 million in various worldwide currencies and cryptocurrencies.

3. United States v Antony Salerno, et al (The Mafia commission trial)

This 1986 trial is known as one of the most significant blows to organized crime in the United States. Formerly confidential information about the Mafia’s internal organization was revealed, and eight defendants were convicted of racketeering including some of the “dons” and underbosses of New York’s five most-prominent crime families, also known as “the Commission” or “La Cosa Nostra.”

The court indictments were the products of five years of investigations, 171 court-authorized wiretaps and the work of more than 200 federal agents. By the time the trial started, there were more than 25 indictment counts including charges of extortion, narcotics, gambling, labor racketeering and murder.

One of the most dramatic moments of the trial occurred when Angelo Lonardo, former Cleveland mafia underboss, took the stand and broke the Mafia’s “omerta” code of silence. Lonardo had been offered a deal by the FBI—testimony in exchange for a reduced sentence and possible parole for his own conviction on drug charges. He provided insights into how the Commission operated. Lonardo’s family in Cleveland communicated to the Commission via Tony Salerno. He pointed out Salerno in court and called out Salerno as the current boss of the Genovese crime family.

The ten-week trial ended with eight convictions of involvement in the Commission and more specific criminal acts from the Genovese, Lucchese, Colombo and Bonanno families.

4. Kansas City Massacre

This June 17, 1933, massacre took the lives of four FBI agents and their federal prisoner, Frank Nash, outside the Union Railway Station in Kansas City, Missouri. Nash already had a long history of criminal activity and was being brought back to a U.S. penitentiary after escaping.

The four individuals indicted of the shooting were said to have connections with Nash in the crime world and didn’t want him sharing potentially damning information with law enforcement. The four individuals—Richard Galatas, Herbert Farmer, “Doc” Louis Stacci and Frank Mulloy—were found guilty of conspiracy to cause the escape of a federal prisoner from the custody of the United States. Each were sentenced to serve two years in a federal penitentiary and pay a fine of $10,000, the maximum penalty allowed by law at the time.

The events of the Kansas City Massacre changed the operations of the FBI. Before, the agency wasn’t permitted to carry firearms or make arrests. After the massacre, Congress gave the FBI statuary authority to carry guns and make arrests, making FBI agents much closer to what they are today.

5. Operation Family Secrets

This seven-year investigation is known as one of the most successful organized crime law enforcement efforts ever conducted. It all started when a letter arrived at the Chicago FBI office from Frank Calabrese Jr. in prison. Calabrese Jr. wanted to help put his father, a mobster, away for life. Nick Calabrese, Frank’s brother, also became an informant.

The investigation led to indictments among 14 defendants affiliated with the Chicago outfit, the Windy City’s mafia organization. Eighteen murders and one attempted murder were investigated with the rest of the crimes encompassing loansharking and bookmaking.

Throughout the 2007 trial, more than 125 witnesses and 200 pieces of evidence were presented. Frank Calabrese was sentenced to life in prison for 13 slayings (among other crimes).

Could a crime-solving career be in your future?

Though we’ve explored organized crime cases with convicted criminals behind bars, many more cases stand unsolved. The world of organized crime is changing. The Mafia, cartels and other organized crime rings still exist, but catching underworld criminals today might look more like Operation Trojan Shield than hunting down mob bosses on the street. No matter how methods may change, the need to help reel in criminal behavior remains constant.

Does the thrill of the chase and the investigative nature of solving crime sound like something you could devote your career to? Our article “Investigate Your Future: Are You Destined for a Crime-Solving Career?” highlights some of the other key signs you’d thrive in an investigative role.

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About the author

Kirsten Slyter

Kirsten is a Content Writer at Collegis Education where she enjoys researching and writing on behalf of Rasmussen University. She understands the difference that education can make and hopes to inspire readers at every stage of their education journey.

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Posted in General Justice Studies

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Recent publications on organized crime: the year 2020

  • Publication Monitor
  • Published: 19 March 2021
  • Volume 24 , pages 388–417, ( 2021 )

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This is a list of over 300 English-language publications on organized crime and related topics from the year 2020. Books are included by copyright date. Journal articles are not included by the date they are posted online first, but by the year of the issue or volume once they are formally published. Pertinent publications were identified through searches in various databases, including Google Scholar and Google Books , using search terms including “organized crime,” “criminal network,” “mafia,” “trafficking,” and “smuggling.” Authors and publishers also provided information. The aim was to list publications that reflect the multi-facetted nature of the study of organized crime, understood broadly to encompass the study of the organization crimes, the study of the organization of criminals, and the study of the organization of social spheres by criminals for criminal purposes. All articles from volume 23 of Trends in Organized Crime were included without a separate examination of their thematic scope.

Aguirre, A. Alonso, Catherina, Richard, Frye, Hailey, Shelley, Louise (2020). Illicit Wildlife Trade, Wet Markets, and COVID‐19: Preventing Future Pandemics. World Medical and Health Policy 12(3):256–265.

Agu, Helen U., Gore, Meredith L. (2020). Women in wildlife trafficking in Africa: A synthesis of literature. Global Ecology and Conservation 23(1):e01166.

Albanese, Jay S. (2020). Why Organized Crime Seeks New Criminal Markets. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 31–42). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ambagtsheer, Frederike (2020). Combating Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal: Lessons Learned from Prosecuting Criminal Cases. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1733–1749). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ambagtsheer, Frederike, Van Balen, Linde (2020). ‘I’m not Sherlock Holmes’: Suspicions, secrecy and silence of transplant professionals in the human organ trade. European Journal of Criminology 17(6):764–783.

Anderson Baxter, Alexandra Louise (2020). When the Line between Victimization and Criminalization Blurs: The Victim-Offender Overlap Observed in Female Offenders in Cases of Trafficking in Persons for Sexual Exploitation in Australia. Journal of Human Trafficking 6(3):327–338.

Andreatta, Daniela, Favarin, Serena (2020). Features of transnational illicit waste trafficking and crime prevention strategies to tackle it. Global Crime 21(2):130–153.

Antonopoulos, Georgios A., Baratto, Gabriele, Di Nicola, Andrea, Diba, Parisa, Martini, Elisa, Papanicolaou, Georgios, Terenghi, Fiamma (2020). Technology in Human Smuggling and Trafficking: Case Studies from Italy and the United Kingdom . Cham: Springer.

Antonopoulos, Georgios A., Hall, Alexandra, Large, Joanna, Shen, Anqi (2020). Counterfeit goods fraud: an account of its financial management. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 26(3):357–378.

Artinopoulou, Vasiliki, Koufouli, Alexandra (2020). Legislation, Policies, and Practices Against Trafficking in Human Beings: The Case of Kosovo. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1113–1132). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Askola, Heli (2020). Regional Responses to Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia and Australasia. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 901–915). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Avery, Simon (2020). For fraud, look under ‘serious and organized crime’. Public Money and Management 40(5):407–414.

Aziani, Alberto (2020). Violent disequilibrium: the influence of instability in the economic value of cocaine markets on homicides. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(3):245–272.

Aziani, Alberto, Dugato, Marco, Meneghini, Cecilia (2020). A methodology for estimating the illicit consumption of cigarettes at the country level. Global Crime 21(2):154–184.

Aziani, Alberto, Favarin, Serena, Campedelli, Gian Maria (2020). Security Governance: Mafia Control over Ordinary Crimes. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 57(4):444–492.

Aziani, Alberto, Favarin, Serena, Campedelli, Gian Maria (2020). A Security Paradox: The Influence Of Governance-Type Organized Crime Over the Surrounding Criminal Environment. British Journal of Criminology 60(4):970–993.

Azis, Avyanthi, Wahyudi, Ridwan (2020). Imperfect Victims and an Imperfect Protocol: Reflecting on the Trafficking Experiences of Indonesian Migrant Fishermen. Journal of Human Trafficking 6(2):156–167.

Baika, Laura, Campana, Paolo (2020). Centrality, Mobility, and Specialization: A Study of Drug Markets in a Non-metropolitan Area in the United Kingdom. Journal of Drug Issues 50(2):107–126.

Balcells, Marc (2020). Old dogs, new tricks: The use of technology by Italian archaeological looters. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 449–475). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Bales, Kevin, Murphy, Laura T., Silverman, Bernard W. (2020). How many trafficked people are there in Greater New Orleans? Lessons in measurement. Journal of Human Trafficking 6(4):375–387.

Barkoukis, Vassilis, Lazuras, Lambros, Kourelis, Panagiotis (2020). A preliminary investigation of the decision making process towards match fixing. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(1):45–54.

Battisti, Michele, Bernardo, Giovanni, Konstantinidi, Antri, Kourtellos, Andros, Lavezzi, Andrea Mario (2020). Socio-Economic Inequalities and Organized Crime: An Empirical Analysis. In: D. Weisburd, E.U. Savona, B. Hasisi, F. Calderoni (Eds.), Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism (pp. 205–239). Cham: Springer.

Batura, Olga, op 't Hoog, Gabrielle, van Wanrooij, Niels (2020). Why do we know so little about illicit trade in cultural goods? An analysis of obstacles to collecting reliable data. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 427–448). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Bauman, Rebecca (2020). Soldiers for the Mob: The Military as Metaphor for Italian Organized Crime. In: M. Roveri (Ed.), Italy and the Military: Cultural Perspectives from Unification to Contemporary Italy (pp. 331–346). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Becucci, Stefano (2020). Human Smuggling to Italy through the Libyan Coasts. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 245–273). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Beka, Agnesa A. (2020). Some features of organized crime in Kosovo. Technium Social Sciences Journal 10(1):201–206.

Belhabib, Dyhia, Le Billon, Philippe, Wrathall, David J. (2020). Narco‐Fish: Global fisheries and drug trafficking. Fish and Fisheries 21(5):992–1007.

Bellotti, Elisa, Spencer, Jon, Lord, Nick, Benson, Katie (2020). Counterfeit alcohol distribution: A criminological script network analysis. European Journal of Criminology 17(4):373–398.

Bernet Kempers, Eva (2020). Between Informality and Organized Crime: Criminalization of Small-Scale Mining in the Peruvian Rainforest. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 273–298). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Berruti, Gilda, Palestino, Maria Federica (2020). Contested land and blurred rights in the Land of Fires (Italy). International Planning Studies 25(3):277–288.

Bertola, Federico (2020). Drug Trafficking on Darkmarkets: How Cryptomarkets are Changing Drug Global Trade and the Role of Organized Crime. American Journal of Qualitative Research 4(2):27–34.

Blokland, Arjan, Van Der Leest, Wouter, Soudijn, Melvin (2020). Officially Registered Criminal Careers of Members of Dutch Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs and Their Support Clubs. Deviant Behavior 41(11):1393–1412.

Blom, Nadine (2020). Human Trafficking: An International Response. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1275–1298). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Bouchard, Martin (2020). Collaboration and Boundaries in Organized Crime: A Network Perspective. Crime and Justice 49(1):425–469.

Bouche, Vanessa, Bailey, Madeleine (2020). The UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons: An Aspirational Tool with Great Potential. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 163–176). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Broad, Rosemary, Muraszkiewicz, Julia (2020). The Investigation and Prosecution of Traffickers: Challenges and Opportunities. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 707–723). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Broadhurst, Roderic (2020). Transnational crime in Asia: Illicit markets and innovation. In: T. Wing Lo, D. Siegel and S.I. Kwok (Eds.), Organized Crime and Corruption Across Borders: Exploring the Belt and Road Initiative (pp. 73–98). London: Routledge.

Brown, Stuart S., Hermann, Margaret G. (2020). Transnational Crime and Black Spots: Rethinking Sovereignty and the Global Economy . Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Bruckmüller, Karin (2020). Trafficking of Human Beings for Organ (Cells and Tissue) Removal. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 319–337). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Bruwer, Carina (2020). Smuggling and Trafficking of Illicit Goods by Sea. In: L. Otto (Ed.), Global Challenges in Maritime Security: An Introduction (pp. 49–73). Cham: Springer.

Bryant, Katharine, Landman, Todd (2020). Combatting Human Trafficking since Palermo: What Do We Know about What Works? Journal of Human Trafficking 6(2):119–140.

Brzenchek, Robert M. (2020). Transnational Organized Crime: Intervention, Prevention, and Suppression of Cybersecurity . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

Burcher, Morgan (2020). Social Network Analysis and Law Enforcement: Applications for Intelligence Analysis . Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Buszko, Andrzej (2020). Transformation Towards a Market Oriented Economy – an Impetus or Hindrance for Organized Crime in Poland? Olsztyn Economic Journal 15(1):5–22.

Calamunci, Francesca, Drago, Francesco (2020). The Economic Impact of Organized Crime Infiltration in the Legal Economy: Evidence from the Judicial Administration of Organized Crime Firms. Italian Economic Journal 6(2):275–297.

Calderoni, Francesco, Campedelli, Gian Maria, Comunale, Tommaso, Marchesi, Martina E. Savona, Ernesto U. (2020). Recruitment into organised criminal groups: A systematic review. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 583(1):1–28.

Calderoni, Francesco, Catanese, Salvatore, De Meo, Pasquale, Ficara, Annamaria, Fiumara, Giacomo (2020). Robust link prediction in criminal networks: A case study of the Sicilian Mafia. Expert Systems with Applications 161(1):113,666.

Campana, Paolo (2020). Human Smuggling: Structure and Mechanisms. Crime and Justice 49(1):471–519.

Caneppele, Stefano, Langlois, Fiona, Verschuuren, Pim (2020). Those who counter match-fixing fraudsters: voices from a multistakeholder ecosystem. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(1):13–26.

Carbajal Glass, Fausto (2020). Where the Metal Meets the Flesh: Organized Crime, Violence, and the Illicit Iron Ore Economy in Mexico’s Michoacán State. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 147–183). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Catino, Maurizio (2020). Italian Organized Crime since 1950. Crime and Justice 49(1):69–140.

Cavallaro, Lucia, Ficara, Annamaria, De Meo, Pasquale, Fiumara, Giacomo, Catanese, Salvatore, Bagdasar, Ovidiu, Song, Wei, Liotta, Antonio (2020). Disrupting resilient criminal networks through data analysis: The case of Sicilian Mafia. PLoS ONE 15(8):e0236476.

Chavez Villegas, Cirenia (2020). Poverty, Aspirations, and Organized Crime in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico. Victims and Offenders 15(3):330–349.

Checchi, Valeria Virginia, Polo, Michele (2020). Blowing in the Wind: The Infiltration of Sicilian Mafia in the Wind Power Business. Italian Economic Journal 6(2):325–352.

Childs, Andrew, Coomber, Ross, Bull, Melissa, Barratt, Monica J. (2020). Evolving and Diversifying Selling Practices on Drug Cryptomarkets: An Exploration of Off-Platform “Direct Dealing”. Journal of Drug Issues 50(2):173–190.

Churakova, Irina, van der Westhuizen, Amanda (2020). Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation: Scope of the Problem. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1071–1092). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Cimino, Francesca, Mannu, Daniela (2020). Smuggling, Trafficking, and Exploitation among Unaccompanied Minors Arriving in Friuli Venezia Giulia from the Middle East. Peace Human Rights Governance 4(3):287–309.

Cingano, Federico, Tonello, Marco (2020). Law Enforcement, Social Control and Organized Crime: Evidence from Local Government Dismissals in Italy. Italian Economic Journal 6(2):221–254.

Cockbain, Ella, Bowers, Kate, Vernon, Liam (2020). Using Law Enforcement Data in Trafficking Research. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1709–1732). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Columb, Sean (2020). Trading Life: Organ trafficking, illicit networks, and exploitation . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Comunale, Tommaso, Calderoni, Francesco, Marchesi, Martina, Superchi, Elisa, Campedelli, Gian Maria (2020). Systematic Review of the Social, Psychological and Economic Factors Relating to Involvement and Recruitment into Organized Crime. In: D. Weisburd, E.U. Savona, B. Hasisi, F. Calderoni (Eds.), Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism (pp. 175–204). Cham: Springer.

Constantinou, Angelo G. (2020). The roles and actions of sex traffickers in Cyprus: an overview. Trends in Organized Crime 23(4):324–349.

Cortes-McPherson, Dolores (2020). Digging into the Mining Subculture: The Dynamics of Trafficking in Persons in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining of Peru’s Madre de Dios. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 359–386). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Cortes-McPherson, Dolores (2020). Labor Trafficking of Men in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Camps of Madre de Dios: A Reflection from the “Diaspora Networks” Perspective. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1785–1802). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Dadpay, Ali (2020). An Analysis of Fuel Smuggling in the Middle East as a Single Multinational Market. Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade 20(4):643–656.

Dagnes, Joselle, Donatiello, Davide, Moiso, Valentina, Pellegrino, Davide, Sciarrone, Rocco, Storti, Luca (2020). Mafia infiltration, public administration and local institutions: A comparative study in Northern Italy. European Journal of Criminology 17(5):540–562.

Dandurand, Yvon, Jahn, Jessica (2020). The Failing International Legal Framework on Migrant Smuggling and Human Trafficking. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 783–800). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Davies, Jon (2020). Criminological reflections on the regulation and governance of labour exploitation. Trends in Organized Crime 23(1):57–76.

Dean, Laura A. (2020). Diffusing Human Trafficking Policy in Eurasia . Bristol: Policy Press.

De Moor, Sabine, Vandeviver, Christophe, Vander Beken, Tom (2020). Assessing the missing data problem in criminal network analysis using forensic DNA data. Social Networks 61(1):99–106.

Derencinovic, Davor (2020). Human Trafficking in Southeastern Europe: Council of Europe Perspective. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1001–1014). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Deuchar, Ross, Harding, Simon, McLean, Robert, Densley, James A. (2020). Deficit or Credit? A Comparative, Qualitative Study of Gender Agency and Female Gang Membership in Los Angeles and Glasgow. Crime and Delinquency 66(8):1087–1114.

Devine, Jennifer A., Currit, Nathan, Reygadas, Yunuen, Liller, Louise I., Allen, Gabrielle (2020). Drug trafficking, cattle ranching and Land use and Land cover change in Guatemala’s Maya Biosphere Reserve. Land Use Policy 95(1):104,578.

Dhungel, Rita (2020). “No More Interviews Please”: Experiences of Trafficking Survivors in Nepal. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 227–245). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Diaz-Cervero, Elba, Barredo, Daniel (2020). Journalistic Coverage of Organized Crime in Mexico: Reporting on the Facts, Security Protocols, and Recurrent Subthemes. International Journal of Communication 14(1):2500–2518.

Diviak, Tomas, Coutinho, James A., Stivala, Alex D. (2020). A Man’s world? Comparing the structural positions of men and women in an organized criminal network. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(5):547–569.

Diviak, Tomas, Dijkstra, Jan Kornelis, Snijders, Tom A.B. (2020). Poisonous connections: a case study on a Czech counterfeit alcohol distribution network. Global Crime 21(1):51–73.

Djordjevic, Sasa, Dobovsek, Bojan (2020). Organised crime in Western Balkans Six at the onset of coronavirus. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 40(9–10):807–820.

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" It is without question, the most comprehensive and robust treatment of organized crime research, theories and perspectives that has been published to date."

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"(...) the reading is engaging, due to the concise expression and the short length of the chapters that permit the best absorption of elaborate concepts (...) although the topic itself is complex and eludes exhaustive presentation, von Lampe uses his extensive knowledge to present the pivotal developments in the field of organised crime (...)"

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Recent publications on organized crime: the year 2020

Klaus von lampe.

Department of Police and Security Management, Berlin School of Economics and Law, Alt-Friedrichsfelde 60, 10315 Berlin, Germany

This is a list of over 300 English-language publications on organized crime and related topics from the year 2020. Books are included by copyright date. Journal articles are not included by the date they are posted online first, but by the year of the issue or volume once they are formally published. Pertinent publications were identified through searches in various databases, including Google Scholar and Google Books , using search terms including “organized crime,” “criminal network,” “mafia,” “trafficking,” and “smuggling.” Authors and publishers also provided information. The aim was to list publications that reflect the multi-facetted nature of the study of organized crime, understood broadly to encompass the study of the organization crimes, the study of the organization of criminals, and the study of the organization of social spheres by criminals for criminal purposes. All articles from volume 23 of Trends in Organized Crime were included without a separate examination of their thematic scope.

Aguirre, A. Alonso, Catherina, Richard, Frye, Hailey, Shelley, Louise (2020). Illicit Wildlife Trade, Wet Markets, and COVID‐19: Preventing Future Pandemics. World Medical and Health Policy 12(3):256–265.

Agu, Helen U., Gore, Meredith L. (2020). Women in wildlife trafficking in Africa: A synthesis of literature. Global Ecology and Conservation 23(1):e01166.

Albanese, Jay S. (2020). Why Organized Crime Seeks New Criminal Markets. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 31–42). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ambagtsheer, Frederike (2020). Combating Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal: Lessons Learned from Prosecuting Criminal Cases. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1733–1749). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ambagtsheer, Frederike, Van Balen, Linde (2020). ‘I’m not Sherlock Holmes’: Suspicions, secrecy and silence of transplant professionals in the human organ trade. European Journal of Criminology 17(6):764–783.

Anderson Baxter, Alexandra Louise (2020). When the Line between Victimization and Criminalization Blurs: The Victim-Offender Overlap Observed in Female Offenders in Cases of Trafficking in Persons for Sexual Exploitation in Australia. Journal of Human Trafficking 6(3):327–338.

Andreatta, Daniela, Favarin, Serena (2020). Features of transnational illicit waste trafficking and crime prevention strategies to tackle it. Global Crime 21(2):130–153.

Antonopoulos, Georgios A., Baratto, Gabriele, Di Nicola, Andrea, Diba, Parisa, Martini, Elisa, Papanicolaou, Georgios, Terenghi, Fiamma (2020). Technology in Human Smuggling and Trafficking: Case Studies from Italy and the United Kingdom . Cham: Springer.

Antonopoulos, Georgios A., Hall, Alexandra, Large, Joanna, Shen, Anqi (2020). Counterfeit goods fraud: an account of its financial management. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 26(3):357–378.

Artinopoulou, Vasiliki, Koufouli, Alexandra (2020). Legislation, Policies, and Practices Against Trafficking in Human Beings: The Case of Kosovo. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1113–1132). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Askola, Heli (2020). Regional Responses to Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia and Australasia. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 901–915). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Avery, Simon (2020). For fraud, look under ‘serious and organized crime’. Public Money and Management 40(5):407–414.

Aziani, Alberto (2020). Violent disequilibrium: the influence of instability in the economic value of cocaine markets on homicides. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(3):245–272.

Aziani, Alberto, Dugato, Marco, Meneghini, Cecilia (2020). A methodology for estimating the illicit consumption of cigarettes at the country level. Global Crime 21(2):154–184.

Aziani, Alberto, Favarin, Serena, Campedelli, Gian Maria (2020). Security Governance: Mafia Control over Ordinary Crimes. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 57(4):444–492.

Aziani, Alberto, Favarin, Serena, Campedelli, Gian Maria (2020). A Security Paradox: The Influence Of Governance-Type Organized Crime Over the Surrounding Criminal Environment. British Journal of Criminology 60(4):970–993.

Azis, Avyanthi, Wahyudi, Ridwan (2020). Imperfect Victims and an Imperfect Protocol: Reflecting on the Trafficking Experiences of Indonesian Migrant Fishermen. Journal of Human Trafficking 6(2):156–167.

Baika, Laura, Campana, Paolo (2020). Centrality, Mobility, and Specialization: A Study of Drug Markets in a Non-metropolitan Area in the United Kingdom. Journal of Drug Issues 50(2):107–126.

Balcells, Marc (2020). Old dogs, new tricks: The use of technology by Italian archaeological looters. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 449–475). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Bales, Kevin, Murphy, Laura T., Silverman, Bernard W. (2020). How many trafficked people are there in Greater New Orleans? Lessons in measurement. Journal of Human Trafficking 6(4):375–387.

Barkoukis, Vassilis, Lazuras, Lambros, Kourelis, Panagiotis (2020). A preliminary investigation of the decision making process towards match fixing. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(1):45–54.

Battisti, Michele, Bernardo, Giovanni, Konstantinidi, Antri, Kourtellos, Andros, Lavezzi, Andrea Mario (2020). Socio-Economic Inequalities and Organized Crime: An Empirical Analysis. In: D. Weisburd, E.U. Savona, B. Hasisi, F. Calderoni (Eds.), Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism (pp. 205–239). Cham: Springer.

Batura, Olga, op 't Hoog, Gabrielle, van Wanrooij, Niels (2020). Why do we know so little about illicit trade in cultural goods? An analysis of obstacles to collecting reliable data. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 427–448). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Bauman, Rebecca (2020). Soldiers for the Mob: The Military as Metaphor for Italian Organized Crime. In: M. Roveri (Ed.), Italy and the Military: Cultural Perspectives from Unification to Contemporary Italy (pp. 331–346). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Becucci, Stefano (2020). Human Smuggling to Italy through the Libyan Coasts. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 245–273). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Beka, Agnesa A. (2020). Some features of organized crime in Kosovo. Technium Social Sciences Journal 10(1):201–206.

Belhabib, Dyhia, Le Billon, Philippe, Wrathall, David J. (2020). Narco‐Fish: Global fisheries and drug trafficking. Fish and Fisheries 21(5):992–1007.

Bellotti, Elisa, Spencer, Jon, Lord, Nick, Benson, Katie (2020). Counterfeit alcohol distribution: A criminological script network analysis. European Journal of Criminology 17(4):373–398.

Bernet Kempers, Eva (2020). Between Informality and Organized Crime: Criminalization of Small-Scale Mining in the Peruvian Rainforest. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 273–298). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Berruti, Gilda, Palestino, Maria Federica (2020). Contested land and blurred rights in the Land of Fires (Italy). International Planning Studies 25(3):277–288.

Bertola, Federico (2020). Drug Trafficking on Darkmarkets: How Cryptomarkets are Changing Drug Global Trade and the Role of Organized Crime. American Journal of Qualitative Research 4(2):27–34.

Blokland, Arjan, Van Der Leest, Wouter, Soudijn, Melvin (2020). Officially Registered Criminal Careers of Members of Dutch Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs and Their Support Clubs. Deviant Behavior 41(11):1393–1412.

Blom, Nadine (2020). Human Trafficking: An International Response. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1275–1298). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Bouchard, Martin (2020). Collaboration and Boundaries in Organized Crime: A Network Perspective. Crime and Justice 49(1):425–469.

Bouche, Vanessa, Bailey, Madeleine (2020). The UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons: An Aspirational Tool with Great Potential. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 163–176). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Broad, Rosemary, Muraszkiewicz, Julia (2020). The Investigation and Prosecution of Traffickers: Challenges and Opportunities. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 707–723). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Broadhurst, Roderic (2020). Transnational crime in Asia: Illicit markets and innovation. In: T. Wing Lo, D. Siegel and S.I. Kwok (Eds.), Organized Crime and Corruption Across Borders: Exploring the Belt and Road Initiative (pp. 73–98). London: Routledge.

Brown, Stuart S., Hermann, Margaret G. (2020). Transnational Crime and Black Spots: Rethinking Sovereignty and the Global Economy . Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Bruckmüller, Karin (2020). Trafficking of Human Beings for Organ (Cells and Tissue) Removal. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 319–337). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Bruwer, Carina (2020). Smuggling and Trafficking of Illicit Goods by Sea. In: L. Otto (Ed.), Global Challenges in Maritime Security: An Introduction (pp. 49–73). Cham: Springer.

Bryant, Katharine, Landman, Todd (2020). Combatting Human Trafficking since Palermo: What Do We Know about What Works? Journal of Human Trafficking 6(2):119–140.

Brzenchek, Robert M. (2020). Transnational Organized Crime: Intervention, Prevention, and Suppression of Cybersecurity . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

Burcher, Morgan (2020). Social Network Analysis and Law Enforcement: Applications for Intelligence Analysis . Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Buszko, Andrzej (2020). Transformation Towards a Market Oriented Economy – an Impetus or Hindrance for Organized Crime in Poland? Olsztyn Economic Journal 15(1):5–22.

Calamunci, Francesca, Drago, Francesco (2020). The Economic Impact of Organized Crime Infiltration in the Legal Economy: Evidence from the Judicial Administration of Organized Crime Firms. Italian Economic Journal 6(2):275–297.

Calderoni, Francesco, Campedelli, Gian Maria, Comunale, Tommaso, Marchesi, Martina E. Savona, Ernesto U. (2020). Recruitment into organised criminal groups: A systematic review. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 583(1):1–28.

Calderoni, Francesco, Catanese, Salvatore, De Meo, Pasquale, Ficara, Annamaria, Fiumara, Giacomo (2020). Robust link prediction in criminal networks: A case study of the Sicilian Mafia. Expert Systems with Applications 161(1):113,666.

Campana, Paolo (2020). Human Smuggling: Structure and Mechanisms. Crime and Justice 49(1):471–519.

Caneppele, Stefano, Langlois, Fiona, Verschuuren, Pim (2020). Those who counter match-fixing fraudsters: voices from a multistakeholder ecosystem. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(1):13–26.

Carbajal Glass, Fausto (2020). Where the Metal Meets the Flesh: Organized Crime, Violence, and the Illicit Iron Ore Economy in Mexico’s Michoacán State. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 147–183). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Catino, Maurizio (2020). Italian Organized Crime since 1950. Crime and Justice 49(1):69–140.

Cavallaro, Lucia, Ficara, Annamaria, De Meo, Pasquale, Fiumara, Giacomo, Catanese, Salvatore, Bagdasar, Ovidiu, Song, Wei, Liotta, Antonio (2020). Disrupting resilient criminal networks through data analysis: The case of Sicilian Mafia. PLoS ONE 15(8):e0236476.

Chavez Villegas, Cirenia (2020). Poverty, Aspirations, and Organized Crime in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico. Victims and Offenders 15(3):330–349.

Checchi, Valeria Virginia, Polo, Michele (2020). Blowing in the Wind: The Infiltration of Sicilian Mafia in the Wind Power Business. Italian Economic Journal 6(2):325–352.

Childs, Andrew, Coomber, Ross, Bull, Melissa, Barratt, Monica J. (2020). Evolving and Diversifying Selling Practices on Drug Cryptomarkets: An Exploration of Off-Platform “Direct Dealing”. Journal of Drug Issues 50(2):173–190.

Churakova, Irina, van der Westhuizen, Amanda (2020). Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation: Scope of the Problem. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1071–1092). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Cimino, Francesca, Mannu, Daniela (2020). Smuggling, Trafficking, and Exploitation among Unaccompanied Minors Arriving in Friuli Venezia Giulia from the Middle East. Peace Human Rights Governance 4(3):287–309.

Cingano, Federico, Tonello, Marco (2020). Law Enforcement, Social Control and Organized Crime: Evidence from Local Government Dismissals in Italy. Italian Economic Journal 6(2):221–254.

Cockbain, Ella, Bowers, Kate, Vernon, Liam (2020). Using Law Enforcement Data in Trafficking Research. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1709–1732). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Columb, Sean (2020). Trading Life: Organ trafficking, illicit networks, and exploitation . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Comunale, Tommaso, Calderoni, Francesco, Marchesi, Martina, Superchi, Elisa, Campedelli, Gian Maria (2020). Systematic Review of the Social, Psychological and Economic Factors Relating to Involvement and Recruitment into Organized Crime. In: D. Weisburd, E.U. Savona, B. Hasisi, F. Calderoni (Eds.), Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism (pp. 175–204). Cham: Springer.

Constantinou, Angelo G. (2020). The roles and actions of sex traffickers in Cyprus: an overview. Trends in Organized Crime 23(4):324–349.

Cortes-McPherson, Dolores (2020). Digging into the Mining Subculture: The Dynamics of Trafficking in Persons in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining of Peru’s Madre de Dios. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 359–386). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Cortes-McPherson, Dolores (2020). Labor Trafficking of Men in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Camps of Madre de Dios: A Reflection from the “Diaspora Networks” Perspective. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1785–1802). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Dadpay, Ali (2020). An Analysis of Fuel Smuggling in the Middle East as a Single Multinational Market. Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade 20(4):643–656.

Dagnes, Joselle, Donatiello, Davide, Moiso, Valentina, Pellegrino, Davide, Sciarrone, Rocco, Storti, Luca (2020). Mafia infiltration, public administration and local institutions: A comparative study in Northern Italy. European Journal of Criminology 17(5):540–562.

Dandurand, Yvon, Jahn, Jessica (2020). The Failing International Legal Framework on Migrant Smuggling and Human Trafficking. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 783–800). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Davies, Jon (2020). Criminological reflections on the regulation and governance of labour exploitation. Trends in Organized Crime 23(1):57–76.

Dean, Laura A. (2020). Diffusing Human Trafficking Policy in Eurasia . Bristol: Policy Press.

De Moor, Sabine, Vandeviver, Christophe, Vander Beken, Tom (2020). Assessing the missing data problem in criminal network analysis using forensic DNA data. Social Networks 61(1):99–106.

Derencinovic, Davor (2020). Human Trafficking in Southeastern Europe: Council of Europe Perspective. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1001–1014). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Deuchar, Ross, Harding, Simon, McLean, Robert, Densley, James A. (2020). Deficit or Credit? A Comparative, Qualitative Study of Gender Agency and Female Gang Membership in Los Angeles and Glasgow. Crime and Delinquency 66(8):1087–1114.

Devine, Jennifer A., Currit, Nathan, Reygadas, Yunuen, Liller, Louise I., Allen, Gabrielle (2020). Drug trafficking, cattle ranching and Land use and Land cover change in Guatemala’s Maya Biosphere Reserve. Land Use Policy 95(1):104,578.

Dhungel, Rita (2020). “No More Interviews Please”: Experiences of Trafficking Survivors in Nepal. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 227–245). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Diaz-Cervero, Elba, Barredo, Daniel (2020). Journalistic Coverage of Organized Crime in Mexico: Reporting on the Facts, Security Protocols, and Recurrent Subthemes. International Journal of Communication 14(1):2500–2518.

Diviak, Tomas, Coutinho, James A., Stivala, Alex D. (2020). A Man’s world? Comparing the structural positions of men and women in an organized criminal network. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(5):547–569.

Diviak, Tomas, Dijkstra, Jan Kornelis, Snijders, Tom A.B. (2020). Poisonous connections: a case study on a Czech counterfeit alcohol distribution network. Global Crime 21(1):51–73.

Djordjevic, Sasa, Dobovsek, Bojan (2020). Organised crime in Western Balkans Six at the onset of coronavirus. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 40(9–10):807–820.

DoCarmo, Tania E. (2020). Ethical Considerations for Studying Human Trafficking. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 177–194). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

DoCarmo, Tania E. (2020). Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human Trafficking from Multiple Directions. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1429–1444). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Doig, Alan, Sproat, Peter (2020). A Policy in Search of an Evidence Base: A credible means of implementation? A UK case study on a central government initiative to address the threat of organised crime involvement in local government procurement. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 187–216). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Doig, Alan, Sproat, Peter A. (2020). Local responses to a national initiative on organised crime and local government procurement fraud. Journal of Financial Crime 27(1):78–91.

Drury, Lisbeth, Travaglino, Giovanni A. (2020). Demobilising by legitimising: Masculine honour, positive and negative contact, and social activism against criminal organisations. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 23(3):402–417.

Dugato, Marco, Calderoni, Francesco, Berlusconi, Giulia (2020). Forecasting Organized Crime Homicides: Risk Terrain Modeling of Camorra Violence in Naples, Italy. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 35(19–20):4013–4039.

Dugato, Marco, Calderoni, Francesco, Campedelli, Gian Maria (2020). Measuring Organised Crime Presence at the Municipal Level. Social Indicators Research 147(1):237–261.

Dulin, Adam L., Patino, Jairo (2020). Mexican cartel expansion: a quantitative examination of factors associated with territorial claims. Crime, Law and Social Change 73(3):315–336.

Duong, Kim Ann (2020). Human Trafficking and Migration: Examining the Issues from Gender and Policy Perspectives. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1819–1833). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Duxbury, Scott, Haynie, Dana L. (2020). The responsiveness of criminal networks to intentional attacks: Disrupting darknet drug trade. PLoS ONE 15(9):e0238019.

Dziewanski, Dariusz (2020). Leaving Gangs in Cape Town: Disengagement as Role Exist. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 49(4):507–535.

El Khoury, Janane (2020). Combatting Human Trafficking in Lebanon: Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1205–1217). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Farrell, Amy, Bright, Katherine, de Vries, Ieke, Pfeffer, Rebecca, Dank, Meredith (2020). Policing labor trafficking in the United States. Trends in Organized Crime 23(1):36–56.

Farrell, Amy, de Vries, Ieke (2020). Measuring the Nature and Prevalence of Human Trafficking. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 147–162). Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Farrell, Amy, Kane, Brianne (2020). Criminal Justice System Responses to Human Trafficking. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 641–657). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Farrell, Amy, Wills, Candence, Nicolas, Carlande (2020). Police Engagement in Multidisciplinary Team Approaches to Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children. In: B. Fox, J.A. Reid, A.J. Masys (Eds.), Science Informed Policing (pp. 195–214). Cham: Springer.

Favarin, Serena, Aziani, Alberto (2020). The Global Waste Trafficking and Its Correlates. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 36(3):351–383.

Fazio, Ida (2020). Illicit trades and smuggling activities on the island of Stromboli, 1808–1816: gender roles during a commercial crisis. Continuity and Change 35(Special Issue 1):11–31.

Fazzi, Luca, Elsen, Susanne (2020). Actors in Social Agriculture Cooperatives Combating Organized Crime in Southern Italy: Cultivating the Ground. Sustainability 12(21):9257.

Finnegan, Jennifer C., Masys, Anthony J. (2020). An Epidemiological Framework for Investigating Organized Crime and Terrorist Networks. In: B. Fox, J.A. Reid, A.J. Masys (Eds.), Science Informed Policing (pp. 19–37). Cham: Springer.

Fischer Bjelland, Heidi (2020). Conceptions of Success: Understandings of Successful Policing of Human Trafficking. Policing 14(3):712–725.

Fontana, Iole (2020). Migration Crisis, Organised Crime and Domestic Politics in Italy: Unfolding the Interplay. South European Society and Politics 25(1):49–74.

Gallien, Max (2020). Informal Institutions and the Regulation of Smuggling in North Africa. Perspectives on Politics 18(2):492–508.

Gara, Mario, Pauselli, Claudio (2020). Looking at ‘Crying Wolf’ from a Different Perspective: An Attempt at Detecting Banks Under- and Over-Reporting of Suspicious Transactions. Italian Economic Journal 6(2):299–324.

Geest, Victor, van Koppen, M. Vere, Kleemans, Edward R. (2020). Delinquent Development, Employment and Income in a Sample of Dutch Organized Crime Offenders: Shape, Content, and Correlates of Delinquent Trajectories from Age 12 to 65. In: D. Weisburd, E.U. Savona, B. Hasisi, F. Calderoni (Eds.), Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism (pp. 309–335). Cham: Springer.

Gibbs, Deborah A., Aboul-Hosn, Sue, Kluckman, Marianne N. (2020). Child Labor Trafficking within The US: A First Look at Allegations Investigated by Florida’s Child Welfare Agency. Journal of Human Trafficking 6(4):435–449.

Gilinskiy, Yakov, Siegel, Dina (2020). Organized crime in contemporary Russia. In: T.W. Lo, D. Siegel, S.I. Kwok (Eds.), Organized Crime and Corruption Across Borders: Exploring the Belt and Road Initiative (pp. 153–165). London: Routledge.

Gooch, Kate, Treadwell, James (2020). Prisoner Society in an Era of Psychoactive Substances, Organized Crime, New Drug Markets and Austerity. British Journal of Criminology 60(5):1260–1281.

Gregori, Matteo, Merlone, Ugo (2020). Comparing operational terrorist networks. Trends in Organized Crime 23(3):263–288.

Grubb, Jonathan A. (2020). The Rise of Sex Trafficking Online. In: T.J. Holt, A.M. Bossler (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of International Cybercrime and Cyberdeviance (pp. 1151–1175). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Han, Seungbaek (2020). Match-fixing under the state monopoly sports betting system: a case study of the 2011 K-League scandal. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(1):97–113.

Hartmann, Arthur (2020). Twenty-five years of legislation and law enforcement against money laundering in Germany: Facts and opinions. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 325–352). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Hataley, Todd (2020). Trade-based money laundering: organized crime, learning and international trade. Journal of Money Laundering Control 23(3):651–661.

Heber, Anita (2020). Purity or danger? The establishment of sex trafficking as a social problem in Sweden. European Journal of Criminology 17(4):420–440.

Heitmüller, Ulrike, von Lampe, Klaus (2020). The rocker phenomenon in Germany: Perceptions and government responses to outlaw bikers in an historical perspective. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 477–503). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Hiah, Jing (2020). (Anti-)trafficking for Labor Exploitation in Romania: A Labor Perspective. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1133–1149). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Holligan, Chris, McLean, Robert, McHugh, Richard (2020). Exploring County Lines: Criminal Drug Distribution Practices in Scotland. Youth Justice 20(1–2):50–63.

Hounmenou, Charles (2020). Engaging Anti-Human Trafficking Stakeholders in the Research Process. Journal of Human Trafficking 6(1):30–49.

Hughes, Caitlin Elizabeth, Chalmers, Jenny, Bright, David A. (2020). Exploring interrelationships between high-level drug trafficking and other serious and organised crime: an Australian study. Global Crime 21(1):28–50.

Hyslip, Thomas S. (2020). Cybercrime-as-a-Service Operations In: T.J. Holt, A.M. Bossler (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of International Cybercrime and Cyberdeviance (pp. 815–846). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ingrasci, Ombretta (2020). Organised crime's lawyers, from lawful defence to the 'bridge function': The case of the Sicilian Mafia. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 139–164). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Ireland, Carol A., Lewis, Michael, Lopez, Anthony, Ireland, Jane L. (Eds.) (2020). The Handbook of Collective Violence: Current Developments and Understanding . New York: Routledge.

Jacobs, James B. (2020). The Rise and Fall of Organized Crime in the United States. Crime and Justice 49(1):17–67.

Jaspers, J.D. (2020). Strong by concealment? How secrecy, trust, and social embeddedness facilitate corporate crime. Crime, Law and Social Change 73(1):55–72.

Jobe, Alison (2020). Telling the Right Story at the Right Time: Women Seeking Asylum with Stories of Trafficking into the Sex Industry. Sociology 54(5):936–952.

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Sumaila, U., Zeller, D., Hood, L., Palomares, M., Li, Y., Pauly, D. (2020). Illicit trade in marine fish catch and its effects on ecosystems and people worldwide. Science Advances 6(9):eaaz3801.

Sussman, Jeffrey (2020). Big Apple Gangsters: The Rise and Decline of the Mob in New York . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

Tak, Minhyeok, Sam, Michael P., Choi, Chang-Hwan (2020). Too much at stake to uphold sport integrity? High-performance athletes’ involvement in match-fixing. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(1):27–44.

Tan, Shih Joo, Segrave, Marie (2020). An Examination of Counter Trafficking Responses in the Asian Region: Hong Kong and Singapore. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 917–934). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Tapia, Mike (2020). Gangs in the El Paso-Juárez borderland: the role of history and geography in shaping criminal subcultures. Trends in Organized Crime 23(4):367–384.

Teichmann, Fabian (2020). Recent trends in money laundering. Crime, Law and Social Change 73(2):237–247.

Teichmann, Fabian Maximilian, Falker, Marie-Christin (2020). Money laundering through consulting companies. Journal of Financial Regulation and Compliance 28(3):485–500.

Tennant, Ian (2020). The Promise of Palermo: A political history of the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime . Geneva: Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime.

Thachuk, Kimberley L. (2020). Warlords and Their Black Holes: The Plunder of Mining Regions in Afghanistan and the Central African Republic by Organized Crime. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 205–237). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Toledo, A.S.O., Carpi, Laura C., Atman, A.P.F. (2020). Diversity Analysis Exposes Unexpected Key Roles in Multiplex Crime Networks. In: H. Barbosa, J. Gomes-Gardenes, B. Goncalves, G. Mangioni, R. Menezes, M. Oliveira (Eds.), Complex Networks XI: Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Complex Networks CompleNet 2020 (pp. 371–382). Cham: Springer.

Trautman, Laurie, Moeller, Mary (2020). The Role of the Border and Border Policies in Efforts to Combat Human Trafficking: A Case Study of the Cascadia Region of the US-Canada Border. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 985–999). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Travaglino, Giovanni A., Drury, Lisbeth (2020). The Secret Power of Criminal Organizations: A Social Psychological Approach . Cham: Springer.

Troncoso, Fredy, Weber, Richard (2020). A novel approach to detect associations in criminal networks. Decision Support Systems 128(1):113,159.

Trounson, Justin, Pfeifer, Jeffrey (2020). The Human Trafficking of Men: The Forgotten Few. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 541–555). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ünal, Mustafa Cosar (2020). Deciphering the crime-terror Nexus: an empirical analysis of the structural characteristics of terrorists in Narco-terror networks. Crime, Law and Social Change 73(2):181–216.

van de Ven, Katinka, Dunn, Matthew, Mulrooney, Kyle (2020). Performance and image enhancing drug (PIED) producers and suppliers: a retrospective content analysis of PIED-provider cases in Australia from 2010–2016. Trends in Organized Crime 23(2):143–153.

van der Valk, Naomi, Bisschop, Lieselot, van Swaaningen, Rene (2020). When Gold Speaks, Every Tongue Is Silent: The Thin Line Between Legal, Illegal, and Informal in Peru’s Gold Supply Chain. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 299–327). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

van der Vorm, Benny, van Duyne, Petrus C. (2020). The retribution of the Erinyes: Combatting outlaw motorcycle gangs from the perspective of 'undermining' criminality. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 505–530). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

van der Watt, Marcel, Kruger, Beatri (2020). Breaking Bondages: Control Methods, “Juju,” and Human Trafficking. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 935–951). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

van der Zee, Kirsten, van Walbeek, Corne, Magadla, Sibahle (2020). Illicit/cheap cigarettes in South Africa. Trends in Organized Crime 23(3):242–262.

van Dijk, Jan (2020). Measuring Trafficking in Persons Better: Problems and Prospects. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1671–1688). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

van Duyne, Petrus C., Siegel, Dina, Antonopoulos, Georgios A., Harvey, Jackie H., von Lampe, Klaus (Eds.) (2020). Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus . The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

van Duyne, Petrus C., Svyatokum, Igor (2020). Corruption and oligarchy in Ukraine: The tenacity of a problem. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 107–138). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

van Meeteren, Masja, Bannink, Sanne (2020). A Transnational Field Approach to the Study of Labor Trafficking. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1751–1763). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

van Meeteren, Masja, Hiah, Jing (2020). Self-Identification of Victimization of Labor Trafficking. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1605–1618). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

van Rij, Jorn, McAlister, Ruth (2020). Using Criminal Routines and Techniques to Predict and Prevent the Sexual Exploitation of Eastern-European Women in Western Europe. In: J.A. Winterdyk, J. Jones (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking (pp. 1689–1708). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

van Uhm, Daan (2020). Chinese wildlife trafficking networks along the Silk Road. In: T.W. Lo, D. Siegel and S.I. Kwok (Eds.), Organized Crime and Corruption Across Borders: Exploring the Belt and Road Initiative (pp. 114–133). London: Routledge.

van Uhm, Daan (2020). The Diversification of Organized Crime into Gold Mining: Domination, Crime Convergence, and Ecocide in Darién, Colombia. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 105–146). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

van Uhm, Daan, Spapens, Toine (2020). Illegal Trade in Protected Birds in the Netherlands: Three criminological perspectives. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 217–243). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

Varese, Federico (2020). How Mafias Migrate: Transplantation, Functional Diversification, and Separation. Crime and Justice 49(1):289–337.

Viseur Sellers, Patricia, Getgen Kestenbaum, Jocelyn (2020). Missing in Action: The International Crime of the Slave Trade. Journal of International Criminal Justice 18(2):517–542.

Visschers, Jonas, Paoli, Letizia, Deshpande, Abhishek (2020). Match-fixing: Football referees’ attitudes and experiences. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(1):77–95.

Volodko, Ada, Cockbain, Ella, Kleinberg, Bennett (2020). “Spotting the signs” of trafficking recruitment online: exploring the characteristics of advertisements targeted at migrant job-seekers. Trends in Organized Crime 23(1):7–35.

von Lampe, Klaus, Blokland, Arjan (2020). Outlaw Motorcycle Clubs and Organized Crime. Crime and Justice 49(1):521–578.

Wagner, Livia, Hunter, Marcena (2020). Links Between Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining and Organized Crime in Latin America and Africa. In: Y. Zabyelina, D. van Uhm (Eds.), Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World (pp. 77–104). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Walters, Reece, Fuentes Loureiro, Maria Angeles (2020). Waste Crime and the Global Transference of Hazardous Substances: A Southern Green Perspective. Critical Criminology 28(3):463–480.

Wang, Peng (2020). How to Engage in Illegal Transactions: Resolving Risk and Uncertainty in Corrupt Dealings. British Journal of Criminology 60(5):1282–1301.

Weide, Robert D. (2020). The Invisible Hand of the State: A Critical Historical Analysis of Prison Gangs in California. Prison Journal 100(3):312–331.

Weigand, Florian (2020). Conflict and Transnational Crime: Borders, Bullets & Business in Southeast Asia . Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Weisburd, David, Savona, Ernesto U., Hasisi, Badi, Calderoni, Francesco (Eds.) (2020). Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism . Cham: Springer.

Whittaker, Andrew, Densley, James, Cheston, Len, Tyrell, Tajae, Higgins, Martyn, Felix-Baptiste, Claire, Havard, Tirion (2020). Reluctant Gangsters Revisited: The Evolution of Gangs from Postcodes to Profits. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 26(1):1–22.

Whittle, Joseph, Antonopoulos, Georgios A. (2020). Assessing the Operation of Irregular Migration from Eritrea and the Smuggling/Criminality Nexus. In: P.C. van Duyne, D. Siegel, G.A. Antonopoulos, J.H. Harvey, K. von Lampe (Eds.), Criminal Defiance in Europe and Beyond: From organised crime to crime-terror nexus (pp. 275–294). The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.

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Wong, Rebecca W.Y. (2020). Protected wildlife on the One Belt, One Road: A case study of illegal tiger skin trade. In: T.W. Lo, D. Siegel and S.I. Kwok (Eds.), Organized Crime and Corruption Across Borders: Exploring the Belt and Road Initiative (pp. 134–150). London: Routledge.

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Doha Declaration

Education for justice.

  • Agenda Day 1
  • Agenda Day 2
  • Agenda Day 3
  • Agenda Day 4
  • Registration
  • Breakout Sessions for Primary and Secondary Level
  • Breakout Sessions for Tertiary Level
  • E4J Youth Competition
  • India - Lockdown Learners
  • Chuka, Break the Silence
  • The Online Zoo
  • I would like a community where ...
  • Staying safe online
  • Let's be respectful online
  • We can all be heroes
  • Respect for all
  • We all have rights
  • A mosaic of differences
  • The right thing to do
  • Solving ethical dilemmas
  • UNODC-UNESCO Guide for Policymakers
  • UNODC-UNESCO Handbooks for Teachers
  • Justice Accelerators
  • Introduction
  • Organized Crime
  • Trafficking in Persons & Smuggling of Migrants
  • Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice Reform
  • Crime Prevention, Criminal Justice & SDGs
  • UN Congress on Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice
  • Commission on Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice
  • Conference of the Parties to UNTOC
  • Conference of the States Parties to UNCAC
  • Rules for Simulating Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice Bodies
  • Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice
  • Engage with Us
  • Contact Us about MUN
  • Conferences Supporting E4J
  • Cyberstrike
  • Play for Integrity
  • Running out of Time
  • Zorbs Reloaded
  • Developing a Rationale for Using the Video
  • Previewing the Anti-Corruption Video
  • Viewing the Video with a Purpose
  • Post-viewing Activities
  • Previewing the Firearms Video
  • Rationale for Using the Video
  • Previewing the Human Trafficking Video
  • Previewing the Organized Crime Video
  • Previewing the Video
  • Criminal Justice & Crime Prevention
  • Corruption & Integrity
  • Human Trafficking & Migrant Smuggling
  • Firearms Trafficking
  • Terrorism & Violent Extremism
  • Introduction & Learning Outcomes
  • Corruption - Baseline Definition
  • Effects of Corruption
  • Deeper Meanings of Corruption
  • Measuring Corruption
  • Possible Class Structure
  • Core Reading
  • Advanced Reading
  • Student Assessment
  • Additional Teaching Tools
  • Guidelines for Stand-Alone Course
  • Appendix: How Corruption Affects the SDGs
  • What is Governance?
  • What is Good Governance?
  • Corruption and Bad Governance
  • Governance Reforms and Anti-Corruption
  • Guidelines for Stand-alone Course
  • Corruption and Democracy
  • Corruption and Authoritarian Systems
  • Hybrid Systems and Syndromes of Corruption
  • The Deep Democratization Approach
  • Political Parties and Political Finance
  • Political Institution-building as a Means to Counter Corruption
  • Manifestations and Consequences of Public Sector Corruption
  • Causes of Public Sector Corruption
  • Theories that Explain Corruption
  • Corruption in Public Procurement
  • Corruption in State-Owned Enterprises
  • Responses to Public Sector Corruption
  • Preventing Public Sector Corruption
  • Forms & Manifestations of Private Sector Corruption
  • Consequences of Private Sector Corruption
  • Causes of Private Sector Corruption
  • Responses to Private Sector Corruption
  • Preventing Private Sector Corruption
  • Collective Action & Public-Private Partnerships against Corruption
  • Transparency as a Precondition
  • Detection Mechanisms - Auditing and Reporting
  • Whistle-blowing Systems and Protections
  • Investigation of Corruption
  • Introduction and Learning Outcomes
  • Brief background on the human rights system
  • Overview of the corruption-human rights nexus
  • Impact of corruption on specific human rights
  • Approaches to assessing the corruption-human rights nexus
  • Human-rights based approach
  • Defining sex, gender and gender mainstreaming
  • Gender differences in corruption
  • Theories explaining the gender–corruption nexus
  • Gendered impacts of corruption
  • Anti-corruption and gender mainstreaming
  • Manifestations of corruption in education
  • Costs of corruption in education
  • Causes of corruption in education
  • Fighting corruption in education
  • Core terms and concepts
  • The role of citizens in fighting corruption
  • The role, risks and challenges of CSOs fighting corruption
  • The role of the media in fighting corruption
  • Access to information: a condition for citizen participation
  • ICT as a tool for citizen participation in anti-corruption efforts
  • Government obligations to ensure citizen participation in anti-corruption efforts
  • Teaching Guide
  • Brief History of Terrorism
  • 19th Century Terrorism
  • League of Nations & Terrorism
  • United Nations & Terrorism
  • Terrorist Victimization
  • Exercises & Case Studies
  • Radicalization & Violent Extremism
  • Preventing & Countering Violent Extremism
  • Drivers of Violent Extremism
  • International Approaches to PVE &CVE
  • Regional & Multilateral Approaches
  • Defining Rule of Law
  • UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy
  • International Cooperation & UN CT Strategy
  • Legal Sources & UN CT Strategy
  • Regional & National Approaches
  • International Legal Frameworks
  • International Human Rights Law
  • International Humanitarian Law
  • International Refugee Law
  • Current Challenges to International Legal Framework
  • Defining Terrorism
  • Criminal Justice Responses
  • Treaty-based Crimes of Terrorism
  • Core International Crimes
  • International Courts and Tribunals
  • African Region
  • Inter-American Region
  • Asian Region
  • European Region
  • Middle East & Gulf Regions
  • Core Principles of IHL
  • Categorization of Armed Conflict
  • Classification of Persons
  • IHL, Terrorism & Counter-Terrorism
  • Relationship between IHL & intern. human rights law
  • Limitations Permitted by Human Rights Law
  • Derogation during Public Emergency
  • Examples of States of Emergency & Derogations
  • International Human Rights Instruments
  • Regional Human Rights Instruments
  • Extra-territorial Application of Right to Life
  • Arbitrary Deprivation of Life
  • Death Penalty
  • Enforced Disappearances
  • Armed Conflict Context
  • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
  • Convention against Torture et al.
  • International Legal Framework
  • Key Contemporary Issues
  • Investigative Phase
  • Trial & Sentencing Phase
  • Armed Conflict
  • Case Studies
  • Special Investigative Techniques
  • Surveillance & Interception of Communications
  • Privacy & Intelligence Gathering in Armed Conflict
  • Accountability & Oversight of Intelligence Gathering
  • Principle of Non-Discrimination
  • Freedom of Religion
  • Freedom of Expression
  • Freedom of Assembly
  • Freedom of Association
  • Fundamental Freedoms
  • Definition of 'Victim'
  • Effects of Terrorism
  • Access to Justice
  • Recognition of the Victim
  • Human Rights Instruments
  • Criminal Justice Mechanisms
  • Instruments for Victims of Terrorism
  • National Approaches
  • Key Challenges in Securing Reparation
  • Topic 1. Contemporary issues relating to conditions conducive both to the spread of terrorism and the rule of law
  • Topic 2. Contemporary issues relating to the right to life
  • Topic 3. Contemporary issues relating to foreign terrorist fighters
  • Topic 4. Contemporary issues relating to non-discrimination and fundamental freedoms
  • Module 16: Linkages between Organized Crime and Terrorism
  • Thematic Areas
  • Content Breakdown
  • Module Adaptation & Design Guidelines
  • Teaching Methods
  • Acknowledgements
  • 1. Introducing United Nations Standards & Norms on CPCJ vis-à-vis International Law
  • 2. Scope of United Nations Standards & Norms on CPCJ
  • 3. United Nations Standards & Norms on CPCJ in Operation
  • 1. Definition of Crime Prevention
  • 2. Key Crime Prevention Typologies
  • 2. (cont.) Tonry & Farrington’s Typology
  • 3. Crime Problem-Solving Approaches
  • 4. What Works
  • United Nations Entities
  • Regional Crime Prevention Councils/Institutions
  • Key Clearinghouses
  • Systematic Reviews
  • 1. Introduction to International Standards & Norms
  • 2. Identifying the Need for Legal Aid
  • 3. Key Components of the Right of Access to Legal Aid
  • 4. Access to Legal Aid for Those with Specific Needs
  • 5. Models for Governing, Administering and Funding Legal Aid
  • 6. Models for Delivering Legal Aid Services
  • 7. Roles and Responsibilities of Legal Aid Providers
  • 8. Quality Assurance and Legal Aid Services
  • 1. Context for Use of Force by Law Enforcement Officials
  • 2. Legal Framework
  • 3. General Principles of Use of Force in Law Enforcement
  • 4. Use of Firearms
  • 5. Use of “Less-Lethal” Weapons
  • 6. Protection of Especially Vulnerable Groups
  • 7. Use of Force during Assemblies
  • 1. Policing in democracies & need for accountability, integrity, oversight
  • 2. Key mechanisms & actors in police accountability, oversight
  • 3. Crosscutting & contemporary issues in police accountability
  • 1. Introducing Aims of Punishment, Imprisonment & Prison Reform
  • 2. Current Trends, Challenges & Human Rights
  • 3. Towards Humane Prisons & Alternative Sanctions
  • 1. Aims and Significance of Alternatives to Imprisonment
  • 2. Justifying Punishment in the Community
  • 3. Pretrial Alternatives
  • 4. Post Trial Alternatives
  • 5. Evaluating Alternatives
  • 1. Concept, Values and Origin of Restorative Justice
  • 2. Overview of Restorative Justice Processes
  • 3. How Cost Effective is Restorative Justice?
  • 4. Issues in Implementing Restorative Justice
  • 1. Gender-Based Discrimination & Women in Conflict with the Law
  • 2. Vulnerabilities of Girls in Conflict with the Law
  • 3. Discrimination and Violence against LGBTI Individuals
  • 4. Gender Diversity in Criminal Justice Workforce
  • 1. Ending Violence against Women
  • 2. Human Rights Approaches to Violence against Women
  • 3. Who Has Rights in this Situation?
  • 4. What about the Men?
  • 5. Local, Regional & Global Solutions to Violence against Women & Girls
  • 1. Understanding the Concept of Victims of Crime
  • 2. Impact of Crime, including Trauma
  • 3. Right of Victims to Adequate Response to their Needs
  • 4. Collecting Victim Data
  • 5. Victims and their Participation in Criminal Justice Process
  • 6. Victim Services: Institutional and Non-Governmental Organizations
  • 7. Outlook on Current Developments Regarding Victims
  • 8. Victims of Crime and International Law
  • 1. The Many Forms of Violence against Children
  • 2. The Impact of Violence on Children
  • 3. States' Obligations to Prevent VAC and Protect Child Victims
  • 4. Improving the Prevention of Violence against Children
  • 5. Improving the Criminal Justice Response to VAC
  • 6. Addressing Violence against Children within the Justice System
  • 1. The Role of the Justice System
  • 2. Convention on the Rights of the Child & International Legal Framework on Children's Rights
  • 3. Justice for Children
  • 4. Justice for Children in Conflict with the Law
  • 5. Realizing Justice for Children
  • 1a. Judicial Independence as Fundamental Value of Rule of Law & of Constitutionalism
  • 1b. Main Factors Aimed at Securing Judicial Independence
  • 2a. Public Prosecutors as ‘Gate Keepers’ of Criminal Justice
  • 2b. Institutional and Functional Role of Prosecutors
  • 2c. Other Factors Affecting the Role of Prosecutors
  • Basics of Computing
  • Global Connectivity and Technology Usage Trends
  • Cybercrime in Brief
  • Cybercrime Trends
  • Cybercrime Prevention
  • Offences against computer data and systems
  • Computer-related offences
  • Content-related offences
  • The Role of Cybercrime Law
  • Harmonization of Laws
  • International and Regional Instruments
  • International Human Rights and Cybercrime Law
  • Digital Evidence
  • Digital Forensics
  • Standards and Best Practices for Digital Forensics
  • Reporting Cybercrime
  • Who Conducts Cybercrime Investigations?
  • Obstacles to Cybercrime Investigations
  • Knowledge Management
  • Legal and Ethical Obligations
  • Handling of Digital Evidence
  • Digital Evidence Admissibility
  • Sovereignty and Jurisdiction
  • Formal International Cooperation Mechanisms
  • Informal International Cooperation Mechanisms
  • Data Retention, Preservation and Access
  • Challenges Relating to Extraterritorial Evidence
  • National Capacity and International Cooperation
  • Internet Governance
  • Cybersecurity Strategies: Basic Features
  • National Cybersecurity Strategies
  • International Cooperation on Cybersecurity Matters
  • Cybersecurity Posture
  • Assets, Vulnerabilities and Threats
  • Vulnerability Disclosure
  • Cybersecurity Measures and Usability
  • Situational Crime Prevention
  • Incident Detection, Response, Recovery & Preparedness
  • Privacy: What it is and Why it is Important
  • Privacy and Security
  • Cybercrime that Compromises Privacy
  • Data Protection Legislation
  • Data Breach Notification Laws
  • Enforcement of Privacy and Data Protection Laws
  • Intellectual Property: What it is
  • Types of Intellectual Property
  • Causes for Cyber-Enabled Copyright & Trademark Offences
  • Protection & Prevention Efforts
  • Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse
  • Cyberstalking and Cyberharassment
  • Cyberbullying
  • Gender-Based Interpersonal Cybercrime
  • Interpersonal Cybercrime Prevention
  • Cyber Organized Crime: What is it?
  • Conceptualizing Organized Crime & Defining Actors Involved
  • Criminal Groups Engaging in Cyber Organized Crime
  • Cyber Organized Crime Activities
  • Preventing & Countering Cyber Organized Crime
  • Cyberespionage
  • Cyberterrorism
  • Cyberwarfare
  • Information Warfare, Disinformation & Electoral Fraud
  • Responses to Cyberinterventions
  • Framing the Issue of Firearms
  • Direct Impact of Firearms
  • Indirect Impacts of Firearms on States or Communities
  • International and National Responses
  • Typology and Classification of Firearms
  • Common Firearms Types
  • 'Other' Types of Firearms
  • Parts and Components
  • History of the Legitimate Arms Market
  • Need for a Legitimate Market
  • Key Actors in the Legitimate Market
  • Authorized & Unauthorized Arms Transfers
  • Illegal Firearms in Social, Cultural & Political Context
  • Supply, Demand & Criminal Motivations
  • Larger Scale Firearms Trafficking Activities
  • Smaller Scale Trafficking Activities
  • Sources of Illicit Firearms
  • Consequences of Illicit Markets
  • International Public Law & Transnational Law
  • International Instruments with Global Outreach
  • Commonalities, Differences & Complementarity between Global Instruments
  • Tools to Support Implementation of Global Instruments
  • Other United Nations Processes
  • The Sustainable Development Goals
  • Multilateral & Regional Instruments
  • Scope of National Firearms Regulations
  • National Firearms Strategies & Action Plans
  • Harmonization of National Legislation with International Firearms Instruments
  • Assistance for Development of National Firearms Legislation
  • Firearms Trafficking as a Cross-Cutting Element
  • Organized Crime and Organized Criminal Groups
  • Criminal Gangs
  • Terrorist Groups
  • Interconnections between Organized Criminal Groups & Terrorist Groups
  • Gangs - Organized Crime & Terrorism: An Evolving Continuum
  • International Response
  • International and National Legal Framework
  • Firearms Related Offences
  • Role of Law Enforcement
  • Firearms as Evidence
  • Use of Special Investigative Techniques
  • International Cooperation and Information Exchange
  • Prosecution and Adjudication of Firearms Trafficking
  • Teaching Methods & Principles
  • Ethical Learning Environments
  • Overview of Modules
  • Module Adaption & Design Guidelines
  • Table of Exercises
  • Basic Terms
  • Forms of Gender Discrimination
  • Ethics of Care
  • Case Studies for Professional Ethics
  • Case Studies for Role Morality
  • Additional Exercises
  • Defining Organized Crime
  • Definition in Convention
  • Similarities & Differences
  • Activities, Organization, Composition
  • Thinking Critically Through Fiction
  • Excerpts of Legislation
  • Research & Independent Study Questions
  • Legal Definitions of Organized Crimes
  • Criminal Association
  • Definitions in the Organized Crime Convention
  • Criminal Organizations and Enterprise Laws
  • Enabling Offence: Obstruction of Justice
  • Drug Trafficking
  • Wildlife & Forest Crime
  • Counterfeit Products Trafficking
  • Falsified Medical Products
  • Trafficking in Cultural Property
  • Trafficking in Persons
  • Case Studies & Exercises
  • Extortion Racketeering
  • Loansharking
  • Links to Corruption
  • Bribery versus Extortion
  • Money-Laundering
  • Liability of Legal Persons
  • How much Organized Crime is there?
  • Alternative Ways for Measuring
  • Measuring Product Markets
  • Risk Assessment
  • Key Concepts of Risk Assessment
  • Risk Assessment of Organized Crime Groups
  • Risk Assessment of Product Markets
  • Risk Assessment in Practice
  • Positivism: Environmental Influences
  • Classical: Pain-Pleasure Decisions
  • Structural Factors
  • Ethical Perspective
  • Crime Causes & Facilitating Factors
  • Models and Structure
  • Hierarchical Model
  • Local, Cultural Model
  • Enterprise or Business Model
  • Groups vs Activities
  • Networked Structure
  • Jurisdiction
  • Investigators of Organized Crime
  • Controlled Deliveries
  • Physical & Electronic Surveillance
  • Undercover Operations
  • Financial Analysis
  • Use of Informants
  • Rights of Victims & Witnesses
  • Role of Prosecutors
  • Adversarial vs Inquisitorial Legal Systems
  • Mitigating Punishment
  • Granting Immunity from Prosecution
  • Witness Protection
  • Aggravating & Mitigating Factors
  • Sentencing Options
  • Alternatives to Imprisonment
  • Death Penalty & Organized Crime
  • Backgrounds of Convicted Offenders
  • Confiscation
  • Confiscation in Practice
  • Mutual Legal Assistance (MLA)
  • Extradition
  • Transfer of Criminal Proceedings
  • Transfer of Sentenced Persons
  • Module 12: Prevention of Organized Crime
  • Adoption of Organized Crime Convention
  • Historical Context
  • Features of the Convention
  • Related international instruments
  • Conference of the Parties
  • Roles of Participants
  • Structure and Flow
  • Recommended Topics
  • Background Materials
  • What is Sex / Gender / Intersectionality?
  • Knowledge about Gender in Organized Crime
  • Gender and Organized Crime
  • Gender and Different Types of Organized Crime
  • Definitions and Terminology
  • Organized crime and Terrorism - International Legal Framework
  • International Terrorism-related Conventions
  • UNSC Resolutions on Terrorism
  • Organized Crime Convention and its Protocols
  • Theoretical Frameworks on Linkages between Organized Crime and Terrorism
  • Typologies of Criminal Behaviour Associated with Terrorism
  • Terrorism and Drug Trafficking
  • Terrorism and Trafficking in Weapons
  • Terrorism, Crime and Trafficking in Cultural Property
  • Trafficking in Persons and Terrorism
  • Intellectual Property Crime and Terrorism
  • Kidnapping for Ransom and Terrorism
  • Exploitation of Natural Resources and Terrorism
  • Review and Assessment Questions
  • Research and Independent Study Questions
  • Criminalization of Smuggling of Migrants
  • UNTOC & the Protocol against Smuggling of Migrants
  • Offences under the Protocol
  • Financial & Other Material Benefits
  • Aggravating Circumstances
  • Criminal Liability
  • Non-Criminalization of Smuggled Migrants
  • Scope of the Protocol
  • Humanitarian Exemption
  • Migrant Smuggling v. Irregular Migration
  • Migrant Smuggling vis-a-vis Other Crime Types
  • Other Resources
  • Assistance and Protection in the Protocol
  • International Human Rights and Refugee Law
  • Vulnerable groups
  • Positive and Negative Obligations of the State
  • Identification of Smuggled Migrants
  • Participation in Legal Proceedings
  • Role of Non-Governmental Organizations
  • Smuggled Migrants & Other Categories of Migrants
  • Short-, Mid- and Long-Term Measures
  • Criminal Justice Reponse: Scope
  • Investigative & Prosecutorial Approaches
  • Different Relevant Actors & Their Roles
  • Testimonial Evidence
  • Financial Investigations
  • Non-Governmental Organizations
  • ‘Outside the Box’ Methodologies
  • Intra- and Inter-Agency Coordination
  • Admissibility of Evidence
  • International Cooperation
  • Exchange of Information
  • Non-Criminal Law Relevant to Smuggling of Migrants
  • Administrative Approach
  • Complementary Activities & Role of Non-criminal Justice Actors
  • Macro-Perspective in Addressing Smuggling of Migrants
  • Human Security
  • International Aid and Cooperation
  • Migration & Migrant Smuggling
  • Mixed Migration Flows
  • Social Politics of Migrant Smuggling
  • Vulnerability
  • Profile of Smugglers
  • Role of Organized Criminal Groups
  • Humanitarianism, Security and Migrant Smuggling
  • Crime of Trafficking in Persons
  • The Issue of Consent
  • The Purpose of Exploitation
  • The abuse of a position of vulnerability
  • Indicators of Trafficking in Persons
  • Distinction between Trafficking in Persons and Other Crimes
  • Misconceptions Regarding Trafficking in Persons
  • Root Causes
  • Supply Side Prevention Strategies
  • Demand Side Prevention Strategies
  • Role of the Media
  • Safe Migration Channels
  • Crime Prevention Strategies
  • Monitoring, Evaluating & Reporting on Effectiveness of Prevention
  • Trafficked Persons as Victims
  • Protection under the Protocol against Trafficking in Persons
  • Broader International Framework
  • State Responsibility for Trafficking in Persons
  • Identification of Victims
  • Principle of Non-Criminalization of Victims
  • Criminal Justice Duties Imposed on States
  • Role of the Criminal Justice System
  • Current Low Levels of Prosecutions and Convictions
  • Challenges to an Effective Criminal Justice Response
  • Rights of Victims to Justice and Protection
  • Potential Strategies to “Turn the Tide”
  • State Cooperation with Civil Society
  • Civil Society Actors
  • The Private Sector
  • Comparing SOM and TIP
  • Differences and Commonalities
  • Vulnerability and Continuum between SOM & TIP
  • Labour Exploitation
  • Forced Marriage
  • Other Examples
  • Children on the Move
  • Protecting Smuggled and Trafficked Children
  • Protection in Practice
  • Children Alleged as Having Committed Smuggling or Trafficking Offences
  • Basic Terms - Gender and Gender Stereotypes
  • International Legal Frameworks and Definitions of TIP and SOM
  • Global Overview on TIP and SOM
  • Gender and Migration
  • Key Debates in the Scholarship on TIP and SOM
  • Gender and TIP and SOM Offenders
  • Responses to TIP and SOM
  • Use of Technology to Facilitate TIP and SOM
  • Technology Facilitating Trafficking in Persons
  • Technology in Smuggling of Migrants
  • Using Technology to Prevent and Combat TIP and SOM
  • Privacy and Data Concerns
  • Emerging Trends
  • Demand and Consumption
  • Supply and Demand
  • Implications of Wildlife Trafficking
  • Legal and Illegal Markets
  • Perpetrators and their Networks
  • Locations and Activities relating to Wildlife Trafficking
  • Environmental Protection & Conservation
  • CITES & the International Trade in Endangered Species
  • Organized Crime & Corruption
  • Animal Welfare
  • Criminal Justice Actors and Agencies
  • Criminalization of Wildlife Trafficking
  • Challenges for Law Enforcement
  • Investigation Measures and Detection Methods
  • Prosecution and Judiciary
  • Wild Flora as the Target of Illegal Trafficking
  • Purposes for which Wild Flora is Illegally Targeted
  • How is it Done and Who is Involved?
  • Consequences of Harms to Wild Flora
  • Terminology
  • Background: Communities and conservation: A history of disenfranchisement
  • Incentives for communities to get involved in illegal wildlife trafficking: the cost of conservation
  • Incentives to participate in illegal wildlife, logging and fishing economies
  • International and regional responses that fight wildlife trafficking while supporting IPLCs
  • Mechanisms for incentivizing community conservation and reducing wildlife trafficking
  • Critiques of community engagement
  • Other challenges posed by wildlife trafficking that affect local populations
  • Global Podcast Series
  • Apr. 2021: Call for Expressions of Interest: Online training for academics from francophone Africa
  • Feb. 2021: Series of Seminars for Universities of Central Asia
  • Dec. 2020: UNODC and TISS Conference on Access to Justice to End Violence
  • Nov. 2020: Expert Workshop for University Lecturers and Trainers from the Commonwealth of Independent States
  • Oct. 2020: E4J Webinar Series: Youth Empowerment through Education for Justice
  • Interview: How to use E4J's tool in teaching on TIP and SOM
  • E4J-Open University Online Training-of-Trainers Course
  • Teaching Integrity and Ethics Modules: Survey Results
  • Grants Programmes
  • E4J MUN Resource Guide
  • Library of Resources
  • Module 11: International Cooperation
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E4J University Module Series: Organized Crime

Module 11: international cooperation to combat transnational organized crime, introduction and learning outcomes.

  • Mutual legal assistance (MLA)
  • Transfer of criminal proceedings
  • Transfer of sentenced persons

Case studies and exercises

  • Thinking critically through fiction
  • Excerpts of legislation

Possible class structure

Core reading, advanced reading, student assessment.

  • Review and assessment questions
  • Research and independent study questions

Additional teaching tools

Published in May 2018

Regional Perspective: Pacific Islands Region - added in November 2019

  This module is a resource for lecturers   

Case study 1 (mutual legal assistance in a case of online child sexual exploitation).

Please note that the text below involves disturbing subject matter. A disclosure of the content of this case study may cause uncomfortable feeling or emotional distress.

The defendant is an Israeli citizen who met the complainants, a woman and her 10 years old daughter who lived in Georgia, through the internet. The defendant persisted in on-line relations with the mother, as well as later upon his arrival to Georgia, where he met her and the daughter, bought the child gifts, went out with them and wired money for them from Israel. Later, according to the indictment, the defendant arrived to a hotel in Tbilisi and asked the mother and daughter to join him. The defendant and the mother reached an agreement according to which he will pay her USD 100 per month for allowing him to use her daughter's body for the production of pornographic material and conducting sexual acts.

According to this agreement, in two cases, the defendant arrived to the hotel in Tbilisi and the mother brought the daughter there. In the hotel room, the defendant took obscene photos of the minor and sexually assaulted her, while visually recording the acts with several cameras belonging to him and the mother.

The defendant gave the mother a camera and a laptop so she could produce paedophilic photos of the minor at his will. The mother emailed the photos to the defendant and he paid her. Later on, the defendant published and sold the photos and films. Additionally, the defendant held in his possession many other obscene materials of other minors, which he also published.

The submission of the indictment was in cooperation with the Georgian authorities. The Georgian authorities arrested the mother and indicted her on charges of trafficking in persons. The evidence in the case against the defendant was based on materials that were collected in Israel as well as in Georgia. Both the mother and the daughter were interviewed and gave written statements. The indictment was submitted in Israel with the approval of the Deputy State Attorney (Criminal Matters) since some of the offenses, for example the sex offenses, are considered foreign offenses conducted in Georgia.

The Court ruled that according to the strong evidence in this case, it was proven that the minor was passed from hand to hand, from her mother to the defendant, as if she was an object, and therefore the element of "a transaction in a person," as required by the offense of trafficking in persons according to Israeli law, was met. The daughter was objectified. According to the Court, the objectification, and making use of a person, need not to be permanent and does not even require a long period of time but rather can occur for a short period of time.

Also, the transaction in a person, and the objectification of a person, do not need to involve the displacement of the victim from their place of residence, as long as they are done for one of the purposes mentioned in the offense, in this case "causing him/her to participate in an obscene publication or in an obscene performance and or subjecting him/her to a sex offense."

Additionally, the Court decided that the linkage between the money transferred to the mother by the defendant and the "usage" of the minor was proven beyond reasonable doubt, even though this is not an element of the offense that needed to be proven.

As for the consent, which is also not an element of the crime, it was proven that the minor protested several times, which only reinforced the element of objectification of her body by her mother and the defendant.

Finally, the Court accepted the State Attorney's Office' argument, according to which the crime of trafficking in persons involves a wide range of situations that are not necessarily contingent upon a place, consent nor a compensation, and that clearly the circumstances of the case shows that a transaction was made between the mother of the victim and the defendant, a transaction whose purpose was to make use of the minor's body as an object, both for the defendant's sexual desires and for trading in the minor's photos

Case-related file

  • UNODC SHERLOC Case Law Database UNODC No.: ISR017

Significant feature

  • The Georgian authorities arrested the mother and indicted her on trafficking in persons charges, the indictment was submitted in Israel and the defendants were tried by a Tel Aviv-Jaffa District Court. The evidence in the case against the defendant was based on materials that were collected both in Israel and Georgia.

Discussion questions

  • What are the legal foundations for mutual legal assistance between Georgia and Israel?
  • What kind of international cooperation did the case require?
  • How did they facilitate the prosecution of this case?

Case Study 2 (Mutual legal assistance in a drug trafficking case)

In 2004, the defendant José, together with BB, CC and DD, decided to start introducing narcotic drugs, notably cocaine, in Spain. According to this criminal plan, BB, CC and DD, residing in Brazil, provided for the transportation of cocaine to Portugal, where the defendant José would collect and transport drugs and, subsequently, sell them in Spain.

In accordance with this plan, on 7 July 2004, the ship North Express moored in the Port of Leixões, Matosinhos, and unloaded the containers CMCU 210514.0 and GLDU 223878-7, which had been shipped in the port of Santos, Brazil, on 1 June 2004. The container CMCU 210514-0 contained 8 packages, each of them with the approximate weight of one kilogram and the container, GLDU 223878-7, contained 2,231.615 kilograms of cocaine, which were hidden inside boxes of ceramic floor tiles.

The defendant, in cooperation with BB, CC and DD, bought several companies and opened in his name, and on behalf of those companies, different bank accounts, notably in Madeira's offshore.

The defendant José, one of the partners of Company-D, with an office in Rua Estela in São Paulo, Brazil, transferred to an account held by Company-C a large sum of USA dollars. Company-C, which has never engaged in any activities, made several bank transfers of large sums of USA dollars. The defendant José had the sole and exclusive power to operate bank accounts and was ready to hold and keep available the amounts in cash held therein.

The investigation into the case was carried out by Portugal's Criminal Investigation Police (Polícia Judiciária). They made use of phone interceptions, surveillance, searches and seizures, and cooperated with the Brazilian homologues. A summary financial investigation was also carried out. During the inquiry, several phone interceptions took place according to arts. 187 et seq. of the Code of Criminal Procedure of Portugal. Searches were also carried out according to art. 174 et seq. of the same Code. These were aimed not only at collecting evidence on the perpetration of the offence but also on the seizure of instrumentalities, proceeds and advantages deriving from them.

The competent Spanish and Brazilian authorities collaborated with the investigation in Portugal. They made available all the information needed for the investigation carried out in Portugal. Police information was also requested from Italian, Swedish, Chinese, American, Swiss and British authorities, notably on the commercial activities developed in those countries by the defendant, as well as by companies directly or indirectly run by him.

During the investigation, after the seizure of the narcotic drugs, a European Arrest Warrant was issued in relation to the defendant. Such warrant eventually was executed in Spain on 9 July 2004 and the defendant was surrendered to national authorities on the 23rd of the same month.

The warrant was issued on the basis of articles 21, n.1 and 24 (b), (c) and (j) (aggravated drug trafficking) of Portugal's Decree-Law 15/93, of 22 January; article 23, n.1 (conversion, transfer or concealment of property or proceeds) and article 28, n.1 (criminal organizations) from the same legal text. In fact, although at the beginning of the inquiry the Public Prosecutor had directed the investigation towards the criminal organization offence as well, he did not use that offence because he did not find evidence of its perpetration.

Several letters of request were also sent to the Spanish, Brazilian and American authorities asking them to carry out several steps of the inquiry, notably house searches, searches in offices, collection of bank information, interrogation of suspects and witness hearing, inventory of movable and immovable property directly or indirectly held by the defendant in those countries, and seizure of bank account deposits.

The main difficulty was in making mutual legal assistance compatible with procedural deadlines, in particular the deadline for filing charges (accusation). In fact, the letters of request sent to Spain, Brazil and the USA were returned after the maximum time-limit for remand in custody during the prosecutorial phase had expired; thus, the charges were brought even before the letters of request were received back, without reflecting the information resulting therefrom.

The court of first instance sentenced the defendant to 14 years of  imprisonment  for aggravated drug trafficking, provided for and punished by articles 21, n. 1 and 24 (b) and (c) of Decree-Law 15/93, of 22 January. In addition, the instrumentalities of crime and the amounts deposited in accounts held either by the defendant or by companies, of which he was the main beneficiary were first seized and then confiscated. The link between these amounts and the criminal charges was not proven, but the Supreme Court of Justice considered that under Act. No. 5/2002 (Establishing Measures for the Combat against Organised Crime and Economic and Financial Crime) of 11 January, 2002, such amounts should be deemed to derive from the criminal activity.

  • UNODC SHERLOC Case Law Database. UNODC No.: PRTx002 .

Significant features

  • Application of the European Arrest Warrant
  • Usage of letters of request
  • What are the benefits of mutual legal assistance in facilitating investigation and prosecution of drug trafficking cases?
  • What are the functions of letters of request and how were they used in this case?
  • What are the grounds of the European Arrest Warrant in this case?

Case Study 3 (Extradition refusal on grounds of inhuman treatment)

In 2016, the Guardian reported a case in which British magistrates refused to extradite to France a man allegedly involved in cocaine smuggling and firearms offences on the grounds that conditions in France's overseas prisons, namely in Guadeloupe and Martinique, are inhumane and degrading. The judgement led to the release on bail of Kurtis Richards, 54, who had been in Wandsworth prison for almost a year after being arrested at Gatwick airport. Richards, a citizen of Dominica in the West Indies, was accused by France in the arrest warrant of smuggling approximately 80 kg of cocaine, shotgun, and two hunting guns into Guadeloupe.

Richard's legal representative argued that prisons of the French West Indies fail to meet the minimum requirements for detention facilities for reasons of poor sanitation and hygiene as well as prison overcrowding and unacceptable disciplinary measures used by guards against inmates.

Both Guadeloupe and Martinique have the status of overseas administrative territories of France. As argued by the defence and supported by the district judge Quentin Purdy, the application of the European Arrest Warrant (EAW) is not to be automatically applied. France, including its overseas territories, must demonstrate commitment to human rights and fully comply with art. 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which prohibits torture or inhuman and degrading treatment.

  • Bowcott, Owen. (2014). UK court rejects extradition request due to French West Indies jail conditions. The Guardian , May 7, 2014.
  • Limits to the application of the European Arrest Warrant (EAW)

In making legislative changes and in carrying out extradition, the intention of the Organized Crime Convention is to ensure the fair treatment of those whose extradition is sought and the application to them of all existing rights and guarantees applicable in the State party from whom extradition is requested.

  • What are the minimum human rights standards and guarantees in international law relevant for extradition cases?
  • How does the Organized Crime Convention ensure human rights protection and guarantees?

Case Study 4 (Hacker "Kolypto" extradited from Norway)

Mark Vartanyan, also known as "Kolypto", a Russian national, was charged with developing and maintaining the "Citadel" malware toolkit. He was extradited to the USA from Norway and charged with computer fraud in March 2016. According to information presented in court, Citadel was a malware toolkit designed to infect computer systems and steal financial account credentials and personally identifiable information from victim computer networks. Citadel was offered for sale on invite-only through Russian-language internet forums frequented by cybercriminals. Users of Citadel targeted and exploited the computer networks of major financial and government institutions around the world. According to estimates, Citadel infected approximately 11 million computers worldwide and is responsible for over USD 500 million in losses.

Vartanyan lived first in Ukraine and then Norway. He allegedly engaged in the development and distribution of Citadel and uploaded numerous electronic files that consisted of Citadel malware, components, updates and patches, as well as customer information, all with the intent of improving Citadel's illicit functionality. The case led to Vartanyan's guilty sentence and a punishment of five years in prison.

Case-related files

  • U.S. Department of Justice. (2017). Press Release: Russian Hacker "Kolypto" Extradited from Norway. March 14 .
  • U.S. Department of Justice. (2017). Press Release: Russian Citizen who Helped Develop the "Citadel" Malware Toolkit is Sentenced. July 19 .
  • On what grounds did the United States made an extradition request of Mark Vartanyan from Norway?
  • What other countries might have reasons to make extradition requests for this suspect?
  • What kind of evidence needed to be collected from outside the United States? Is seizure and sharing of computer hardware and data included in mutual legal assistance agreements between the United States and Norway?

Case Study 5 (Dotcom et al. v. the United States)

In 2005, Kim Dotcom developed a business under the name "Megaupload." This business enabled users to upload files for storage in the cloud on one of the many servers leased by Megaupload. By January 2012, Megaupload claimed to have over 60 million registered users. It was said to be the thirteenth most frequently visited site on the Internet attracting an average of 50 million visits daily and more than one billion visitors in total.

Users could upload videos to Megaupload and obtain a link which would provide access to it. A user could repeatedly upload the same video and obtain multiple links. The user could then choose to share these links with others, including through third party websites, enabling them to access the video using Megavideo. Megaupload was not responsible for these linking sites and only the user could determine whether to make a link available to others. However, the United States contends that Megaupload encouraged this file sharing practice by offering financial rewards and incentives to users who uploaded files that attracted high numbers of views or downloads. Anyone gaining access to a file stored on Megaupload through a link would be limited to viewing approximately 72 minutes of content, which is less than the length of most motion pictures. The viewer was then prompted to subscribe to Megaupload as a "premium user" in order to continue watching. Premium users were also able to view Mega-hosted videos embedded on third party linking websites. Subscriptions from premium users provided the main source of revenue to the Mega group, estimated by the United States to be approximately USD 150 million. The other principal source of revenue was from online advertising shown prior to the commencement of each video. The United States contends that total advertising revenue exceeded USD 25 million.

In March 2010, the Motion Picture Association of America made a complaint of criminal copyright infringement arising out of the operations of Megaupload, leading to a lengthy investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

On 5 January 2012, the Grand Jury returned an initial indictment against the appellants. The United States Court immediately issued arrest warrants and made restraining orders in respect of all of the appellants' assets worldwide, including real and personal property in Hong Kong, New Zealand, Germany, the Netherlands and Australia. Prosecutors sought to seize an extensive list of assets, including millions of dollars in various seized bank accounts in Hong Kong and New Zealand, multiple cars, four jet skis, the Dotcom mansion, several luxury cars, two 108-inch TVs, three 82-inch TVs, a USD 10,000 watch, and a photograph by Olaf Mueller worth over USD 100,000. On 20 January 2012, the United States took control of the website domain name and database service of Megaupload and its associated websites, effectively terminating the entire operation. The websites were replaced with an anti-piracy warning issued by the United States Department of Justice in conjunction with the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Centre.

At a hearing in the High Court on 28 August 2012, Justice Judith Potter allowed Dotcom to withdraw approximately NZD 6 million (USD 4.8 million) from his seized funds. He was also allowed to sell nine of his cars. The amount released was to cover USD 2.6 million in existing legal bills, USD 1 million in future costs, and another USD 1 million in rent on his New Zealand mansion. In April 2014, Megaupload launched legal action against the Hong Kong government, applying for the restraining order to be set aside while accusing the Secretary of Justice of procedural failings when the application for seizure was made.

After several years of legal wrangling, involving Supreme Court cases and multiple delays in the proceedings, extradition proceedings finally got underway in an Auckland court, New Zealand, on 21 September 2015. In February 2017, the New Zealand High Court rejected earlier defence appeals and endorsed the extradition to the United States. Justice Murray Gilbert of the High Court of New Zealand ruled that while he agreed with one of Dotcom's defence attorney's primary argument that "online communication of copyright protected works to the public was not a criminal offense in New Zealand," Dotcom and his co-defendants were still eligible for extradition based on their conduct which can be interpreted as the offense of conspiracy to defraud in terms of art II.16, referring to a particular section of the extradition treaty between New Zealand and the United States.

  • UNODC SHERLOC Case Law Database.No.: NZLx006
  • United States v. Batato et al. United States Court of Appeals .
  • Interview with Dotcom's Lawyer Rothken .
  • Kim Dotcom Exclusive Interview "I will fight this and win" (2012) .
  • Russia Today. (2014). Kim Dotcom: The Man Behind Megaupload .
  • Farivar, Cyrus. (2017). New Zealand appeals court upholds Kim Dotcom extradition ruling. Ars Technica, February 20 .
  • Extraterritorial jurisdiction
  • Application of the double (dual) criminality principle
  • Elements of an "extraditable offense"
  • What principles of extradition apply to the extradition of Kim Dotcom to the United States?
  • Kim Dotcom's extradition defence team argued that none of the alleged charges against the Megaupload founder were enough to extradite him to the United States. "I'm no longer getting extradited for Copyright. We won on that," Dotcom tweeted after the ruling against him. " I'm now getting extradited for a law that doesn't even apply ." What were the grounds of the defence position? On what grounds did the court in New Zealand reject the defence team's appeal?

Case Study 6 (Extradition of Ze'ev Rosenstein)

On 27 December 2004, the United States Government relayed a request to the Government of the State of Israel for the extradition of appellant Ze'ev Rosenstein to the US. The request included a detailed account of Rosenstein's alleged crime, in which-according to the prosecution authorities in the USA-he conspired in Israel to import ecstasy pills (methylenedioxymethamphetamine) into the USA and to distribute it there.

The essence of the allegations in the extradition request was that in the late 1990s Rosenstein together with Baruch Dadush and Zvi Fogel began trafficking in drugs. The extradition request claims that Rosenstein was involved in three drug deals of wide scope. The first took place in 1999, when 135,000 MDMA pills were bought in Holland and brought to their destination in the United States via Germany, hidden in motor vehicles. According to the USA prosecution authorities, Rosenstein funded the purchase of 32,000 of these pills. After Dadush and Fogel sold the drugs in the USA on Rosenstein's behalf, Fogel transferred part of the profits to Dadush, USD 90,000 of which Dadush gave Rosenstein, keeping the same amount for himself.

In the same year another drug deal was carried out. That deal led to the distribution of 305,000 pills of the drug in the US, 50,000 of which Rosenstein purchased for a total of USD 50,000, which he paid Fogel via Dadush. This time the drug was transported while hidden in copper scrap and computer parts. Dadush intended to travel to the US, accompanied by his brother Alain, in order to coordinate the distribution of the drug, but he was refused entry and returned to Israel. As for Alain, he entered the USA, and followed Dadush's instructions in order to distribute the pills in New York City. When the job was finished, the profits were transferred to Fogel in Israel. The latter transferred the relevant part of the profits to Dadush, out of which Rosenstein's share was paid to him. According to the prosecution authorities, an additional shipment of drugs was arranged in 2001.

In November 2004, as a result of an extended covert investigation efforts on the part of American law enforcement agencies the Miami police and the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) seized about 700,000 ecstasy pills in a Manhattan apartment. Further investigation on the Israeli side led to Rosenstein's arrest. The USA wanted Rosenstein for the crime of conspiracy to import large shipments of ecstasy pills with the aim to distribute them in the country (an offense pursuant to 21 USC § 841(a)(1), 841(b)(1)(c) and 846), and conspiracy to import a controlled substance into the United States (an offense pursuant to sections 952(a), 960(b)(3) and 963 of that law). The State of Israel, in which Rosenstein was detained and in which the conspiracy was made, was being asked, on the basis of the extradition treaty between the two countries, to extradite him.

The District Court of Israel emphasized that in crimes involving a prominent international dimension, including drug offenses, the centre of gravity of the offense should not be identified as the physical place in which it was committed, since that place is likely to be random and unimportant. Instead, weight should be given to the place in which the offense was consummated. The court further stressed that in such offenses, the territorial principle should be given little weight, and the interests regarding the reciprocity of extradition between States, and the need for international cooperation to rout organized crime, should be preferred. The court concluded that Rosenstein's extradition raised no concern of violation of public policy or due process, and did not impair his ability to defend himself against the charges against him.

Rosenstein's defence appealed the decision. Rosenstein argued that the dominant link of the offenses with which he was charged was to Israel and not to the United States. Considering, further, that the offender was an Israeli citizen and resident, who was not a fugitive from justice in another country and who could be tried in Israel, Rosenstein claimed that extradition served no worthy purpose and was not proportional. He further contended that the target of the conspiracy to import and distribute controlled substances and the personal link of the victims of the crime could not outweigh the principle of territorial jurisdiction.

Rosenstein further argued that his extradition would violate his procedural and substantive rights as a defendant in a criminal case. He would not have the benefit of being judged in his natural environment, and language difficulty and the difference between the Israeli and American legal systems could compromise his defence and his rights to due process. The argument referred mainly to the jury system, which was a different decision-making system than the one in Israeli law.

The Supreme Court of Israel denied the appeal in 2006, reaffirming his extradition to stand trial in the United States-a precedent-setting decision that made Rosenstein one of very few Israelis to ever be extradited for prosecution in another country. In accordance with the extradition treaty between Israel and the US, he was nevertheless returned to Israel to serve his US-imposed sentence in an Israeli prison.

  • Supreme Court of Israel. CrimA 4596/05 Ze'ev Rosenstein v. The State of Israel .
  • Extradition and return to the country of citizenship to serve a sentence
  • What are the key features of the transnational conspiracy and its operations in the black market for ecstasy in which Rosenstein was involved? What role did Rosenstein play in ecstasy trafficking and distribution?
  • How many crimes were involved in the case? How many countries could make an extradition claim to prosecute Rosenstein (and his associates)?
  • What principles of extradition discussed in the Module can you identify?
  • What grounds did the Rosenstein defence team present to claim against his extradition to the United States?
  • What are the benefits and disadvantages of prosecuting Rosenstein in the US? What are the reasons for the arrangement between Israel and the United States to return Rosenstein to serve his sentence in Israel?

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  • Education for Universities
  • Organized Crime

Module 9: Prosecution Strategies

  • Case Studies

UNODC Teaching Module Series: Organized Crime

Introduction and learning outcomes.

  • The role of prosecutors
  • Adversarial versus inquisitorial legal systems
  • Mitigating punishment
  • Granting immunity from prosecution
  • Witness protection

Case studies and exercises

  • Thinking critically through fiction
  • Excerpts of legislation

Possible class structure

Core reading, advanced reading, student assessment.

  • Review and assessment questions
  • Research and independent study questions

Additional teaching tools

This module is a resource for lecturers, case study 1 (plea agreement; justice collaborators).

The organized criminal group commonly known in South Africa as the "Mountain Boys" was highly organized and operated transnationally. The syndicate engaged in a range of criminal activities that constitute serious offences under South African law. The offences relate to racketeering activities and related categories of offences, including money-laundering. The information gathered further indicated that members of the organized criminal group also committed a range of other serious crimes including theft, fraud as well as offences under the provisions of the South African Mining Rights Act and the Precious Metals Act. In particular, the group members operated as national buyers and exporters of illicit platinum group metals ("PGM") from South Africa. There are five clearly distinguishable levels of activities used by the group to smuggle PGMs.

As a starting point, PGMs were stolen at source from the mines, often in large quantities. These PGMs were later sold through various receivers to exporters. The various levels of the criminal operators in the illicit PGM industry can be described as follows:

Level 1 "the runners"

The unwrought PGM's were stolen from the processing plants in South African mines. A runner, who was usually an employee of the mine, would then transport the material from the mine by bag or by other methods and sell it to a middleman. Runners used to have a wide network of black market contacts, including illicit smelters.

Level 2 "the middleman"

The middleman would buy considerable volumes of PGMs from the runners. The middleman crushed the PGMs into smaller pieces and packaged them for the national buyers, before delivery.

Level 3 "national buyers"

The national buyers would buy the PGM'S from the level 1 and 2 operatives. These buyers appeared to be the link between the runners/middleman and more sophisticated criminals who constituted the next level in the hierarchy of the criminal operators. Often, these buyers were members of the organized criminal group or they operated as independent couriers for such group. Their task was to buy and transport the material from the runner/middleman to wealthy local syndicate leaders.

Level 4 "the local syndicate leader"

The syndicate leader/buyer used a fronting company, usually a scrap metal dealer, to export the product from South Africa. The PGM stocks that they had purchased from various sources were processed, containerised or packaged and then sold to local or international contacts. Processing allowed for detailed records to be kept by the syndicate leaders from whom the product was bought and samples were also taken for analysis (assay) to determine value and PGM content. Misrepresentations were made to customs by undervaluing and falsifying the nature of the consignment. This step was used to overcome the requirements for prescribed permits and licences to possess, transport and deal in the product as required by the Act.

Level 5 "the international buyers"

The international contacts were situated abroad. Sophisticated networks, consisting of legal persons and entities established abroad dealt with the imports and revenues derived from the sale of stolen South African PGMs distributed to the refiners in Western Europe and Canada.

The complexity of the case required participation of witnesses and justice collaborators associated with the accused in one or more activities, who were offered indemnity should they testify for the prosecution. Plea agreements in terms of section 105 A of the South Africa Criminal Procedure Act were also entered into with some of the accused, who would, as part of the plea agreement, testify against one or more of the accused. For instance, the charges against two defendants, Kevin Naidoo and Terrence James, were finalized as both pleaded guilty in terms of section 105 A (plea agreement). Both were scheduled to testify for the prosecution in court.

Case-related file

  • UNODC SHERLOC Case Law Database UNODC No.: ZAFx300

Significant features

  • Collaboration between prosecutor and persons who face criminal charges
  • Plea agreements in exchange for testimonies

Discussion questions

  • How can justice collaborators contribute to the investigation and prosecution of an organized crime case?
  • What incentives can be provided to ensure collaboration on the side of justice collaborators and witnesses? Is the offering of downgraded charges or reduced sentence a good and sufficient reward for a justice collaborator?

Case Study 2 (United States v. Vincent Gigante)

organised crime case studies

Description: Reputed crime boss Vincent Gigante is escorted by two unidentified men to a waiting car on 23 July 1997 on his way to attend court in his federal racketeering trial in Brooklyn, New York. Photo Credit: Getty Images

Vincent Gigante was the head of the Genovese crime family in New York City. Along with the heads of the four other organized crime families in New York City, he was a member of the Commission, a body that governed La Cosa Nostra families throughout the United States. He and Vittorio "Vic" Amuso - the head of the Lucchese family - were centrally involved in a scheme to control the multi-million dollar window replacement business in New York City.

They carried out the scheme through the Genovese family's control of window replacement companies, which made labour payoffs to the window replacement union that the Lucchese family controlled. In exchange for bribery payments to corrupt union officials, the Genovese family's companies were allowed to circumvent costly union rules and to hire less expensive non-union workers. When other companies successfully bid on jobs, union representatives would persuade them to withdraw their bids through coercive means. Gigante also conspired to murder Peter Savino, an associate of the Genovese family, as he correctly believed that Savino had begun cooperating with law enforcement agents. The plan to kill Savino did not succeed, however, because Savino entered the witness protection programme and Gigante was therefore unable to locate him. At trial, Savino testified about Gigante's involvement in the window replacement scheme. Savino testified from a remote location by way of a live two-way closed-circuit television procedure that allowed Savino to view and hear Gigante and counsel while simultaneously allowing Gigante, counsel, the judge, and the jury to view and hear Savino. That procedure resulted from the district court's grant of the government's pre-trial application to permit Savino to testify through a two-way closed-circuit television procedure. The reason was Savino's terminal illness. Savino was then in the final stages of an inoperable, fatal cancer and was under medical supervision at an undisclosed location.

The jury found Gigante guilty of the more recent conspiracies to murder Peter Savino and John Gotti, although the court later dismissed the charge of conspiracy to murder Gotti as time-barred. Gigante was also convicted on all the extortion and labour payoff counts related to the windows scheme. He was sentenced to twelve years in prison, five years of supervised release, and a fine of $1,250,000.

Gigante argued that the admission of Peter Savino's testimony via two-way, closed-circuit television testimony from a remote location violated his Sixth Amendment right "to be confronted with the witnesses against him". Gigante maintained that no compelling government interest justified the deprivation of his constitutional right to a face-to-face confrontation with Savino. The government asserted that by refusing to attend a deposition of Savino, Gigante waived his right to a face-to-face confrontation. More fundamentally, the government argued that Gigante waived his confrontation rights through his own misconduct, with protracted attempts to delay his own trial by feigning incompetence.

The Supreme Court explained that "[t]he central concern of the Confrontation Clause is to ensure the reliability of the evidence against a criminal defendant by subjecting it to rigorous testing in the context of an adversary proceeding before the trier of fact." (Id. at 845, 110 S. Ct. 3157). The salutary effects of face-to-face confrontation include 1) the giving of testimony under oath; 2) the opportunity for cross-examination; 3) the ability of the fact-finder to observe demeanour evidence; and 4) the reduced risk that a witness will wrongfully implicate an innocent defendant when testifying in his presence.

The closed-circuit television procedure utilized for Savino's testimony preserved all of these characteristics of in-court testimony: Savino was sworn; he was subject to full cross-examination; he testified in full view of the jury, court, and defence counsel; and Savino gave this testimony under the eye of Gigante himself. Gigante forfeited none of the constitutional protections of confrontation.

Case-related files

  • United States of America, Appellee, v. Vincent Gigante, Also Known As "Chin," Defendant-appellant, 166 F.3d 75 (2d Cir. 1999). Argued Oct. 20, 1998. Decided Jan. 22, 1999.
  • United States of America v. Vincent Gigante, On Petition for a Writ of Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for the second Circuit .

Significant feature

  • Whether the presentation of a witness's testimony from a remote location by two-way closed-circuit television violated petitioner's rights under the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment.

Discussion question

  • Does the use of video conference technology for transmitting witness testimonies in court jeopardize the right to a fair trial?

Case Study 3 (Obstruction of justice and the use of video conferencing technology)

Schertzer, Steven Correia, Joseph Miched, Nebojsa Maodus and Raymond Pollard were five police officers part of the drug squad of the Toronto Police Service (TPS) Central Field Command (CFC). In 2004, they were accused of conspiracy to obstruct justice and other substantive offences including perjury, assault causing bodily harm and extortion. According to the conspiracy charges against them, in 1997 they coerced the drug dealer Andreas Ioakim into contacting another drug dealer, Aida Fagundo, in order to deliver 5 kilos of cocaine. It was alleged that the accused seized large amounts of money and drugs from Ioakim and not reporting them. In addition, they were accused of attacking Ms. Fagundo after the delivery and taking her money and belongings. Ms. Fagundo pled guilty to possession of cocaine and was sentenced in 1999 to 30 months in jail.

The accused were suspected of obstructing justice by various means, including falsification of their memo books, inclusion of misleading or false information in police records, preparation of false affidavits, perjury and failing to account for evidence seized. They also concealed the complaint for misconduct filed by Ms. Fagundo.

The investigation of the offences began in 2001. The testimony of Ms. Fagundo was sought against the accused. For nine years, Fagundo travelled widely to Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Spain, where she was residing when the pursuant order for her hearing by means of technology was issued. Previously, on behalf of Canadian authorities, the Cuban authorities interviewed her to investigate whether she was willing to testify in Canada. She declined the offer, scared for her security, among other reasons.

In 2008, pursuant to the Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters Treaty binding Spain and Canada, Canadian prosecutors asked to conduct the interview of Fagundo in Spain. She refused on the ground that such a request would interfere with her application for a Spanish residency permit. The mutual legal assistance request was then withdrawn by Canada.

After several attempts to interview Ms. Fagundo, she finally agreed to testify under certain conditions. In particular, she accepted to be interviewed via video conferencing. The interview took place in May 2009 and was recorded.

In granting the prosecution their motion for video conferencing, the judge noted in this decision that a fair trial does not always require that an accused physically confront a witness in person. For the evidence to be admissible in court, the court, jury, counsel and accused must be able to see the witness on a screen and hear and see the witness testify in real time, and the witness has to be able to hear and see counsel questioning her, the registrar who administers the oath, and the court, in the event that the presiding judge must speak to her.

Case related file

  • UNODC SHERLOC Case Law Database. UNODC No.: CANx038
  • This case highlights some concerns the counsel has over video conferencing. However, as noted by the judge in this decision, depending on the national provisions at play and the facts specific to a particular case, video conferencing does not necessarily interfere with the principles of fundamental justice and is therefore applicable under certain conditions.
  • Define obstruction of justice. What does the Organized Crime Convention say about this offence?
  • What are the benefits of using video conference technology for transmitting witness testimonies in court?

Case Study 4 (the Italian system for protecting witnesses)

The Italian system foresees the implementation of special measures when standard measures of protection for collaborators of justice and witnesses (e.g., home/workplace surveillance and escorts) are inadequate and the individual is at risk of serious endangerment. A "collaborator of justice" is someone facing criminal charges who agrees to cooperate by giving testimony on mafia-type criminal association offences or other offences listed in the law. A "witness" is any victim of a serious crime or any person who has witnessed a crime and testifies at trial, thus exposing himself/herself to serious and imminent danger (e.g., witnesses of criminal acts that occurred in their home or immediate environment, such as relatives of members of criminal groups; entrepreneurs and traders victimized by a racket). A witness can be put under protection regardless the type of crime.

The cooperation offered by must be trustworthy. Within 180 days from the time the person has expressed willingness to cooperate, s/he must supply critical information, in particular all information he or she possesses that can help to reconstruct criminal acts and circumstances and to locate and arrest the perpetrators. The protection programme is determined by a Central Commission (the Deputy Minister of the Interior, two judges and five police officers) upon request of a public prosecutor, for a period of 6 to 60 months. A temporary plan can be adopted as soon as the intention to cooperate is expressed. The special protection measures can be extended to persons living permanently with the collaborator or witness, or persons at risk because of their relationships with the collaborator or witness.

The protection system is based on the principle of "camouflage", i.e., the achievement of complete anonymity. The subjects relocate to a new, secure place of residence and are given a provisional identity document valid during the protection term only. In particularly sensitive cases, regulations also provide for a permanent change of identity. Assistance measures can also be prescribed to facilitate social reintegration and provide material support (accommodation, transfer fees, health care, legal and psychological assistance, and allowances for those who are unable to work).

The protected persons commit themselves to: observing security rules and cooperating actively in carrying out the protection measures; being questioned, examined or being available for any acts to be carried out; not disclosing facts of the proceedings to anyone other than law enforcement and judicial authorities and their defending counsel; and not contacting any person involved in criminal activities. Collaborators of justice, but not witnesses, shall specify all personal properties and assets at their disposal, directly or indirectly, which will be seized.

The programme is terminated when the conditions that called for it no longer exist, or because of non-compliance with the obligations, perpetration of offences, unauthorized return to the place of origin or revealing the new identity or place of residence. The protected person can also quit the programme with a written renunciation.

The programme may include measures to facilitate social reintegration when the cooperation is completed. For collaborators of justice, these measures include a monetary allowance for two to five years, plus a lump sum for accommodation. For witnesses, these measures cover a period up to 10 years and guarantee the person's standard of living prior to admission to the programme. Witnesses receive a sum of money as a reimbursement for lost income, can obtain secured loans and sell their real estate to public revenue bodies at market price; and if they are civil servants, they preserve their job on paid leave.

Special features

  • Complete anonymity and social integration of witnesses
  • How does the Italian system address the three issues of money, perpetual secrecy, and never going home?
  • What challenges remain in witness protection programmes?

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