U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

  • Publications
  • Account settings
  • Advanced Search
  • Journal List
  • Membranes (Basel)

Logo of membranes

Membrane Technologies in Wastewater Treatment: A Review

In the face of water shortages, the world seeks to explore all available options in reducing the over exploitation of limited freshwater resources. One of the surest available water resources is wastewater. As the population grows, industrial, agricultural, and domestic activities increase accordingly in order to cater for the voluminous needs of man. These activities produce large volumes of wastewater from which water can be reclaimed to serve many purposes. Over the years, conventional wastewater treatment processes have succeeded to some extent in treating effluents for discharge purposes. However, improvements in wastewater treatment processes are necessary in order to make treated wastewater re-usable for industrial, agricultural, and domestic purposes. Membrane technology has emerged as a favorite choice for reclaiming water from different wastewater streams for re-use. This review looks at the trending membrane technologies in wastewater treatment, their advantages and disadvantages. It also discusses membrane fouling, membrane cleaning, and membrane modules. Finally, recommendations for future research pertaining to the application of membrane technology in wastewater treatment are made.

1. Introduction

All activities of mankind are water dependent. With the increase in human population, tons and tons of wastewater are produced everyday across the domestic, industrial, and agricultural sectors. Freshwater resources, however, do not get replenished to accommodate the ever-increasing population and its water usage needs. This has led to intense competition and unfair distribution of the limited freshwater resources among the various sectors. Consequently, many people around the world, especially in developing countries, lack access to potable water. Again, agricultural activities are heavily affected, as farms lack access to enough water resources for all year-round irrigation and livestock production. The evidence of these situations is seen across the world, especially in the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The facts are glaring, such as 2.1 billion people living without safe drinking water at home, and nearly four billion people experience severe water scarcity during at least one month of the year [ 1 , 2 ].

Wastewater generation is inevitable as it forms an integral part of the value chain in all sectors of life. In the oil refinery industry, every one barrel of crude oil processed generates about 10 barrels of wastewater [ 3 ]. In an infrastructure report by the South African Institution of Civil Engineers, titled SAICE Infrastructure Report Card for South Africa, 2011, it was noted that an average of 7589 mega liters per day of wastewater is transported across South Africa [ 4 ]. All these wastewaters are clean water with contaminants. With efficient wastewater treatment, freshwater resources can be supplemented, and potable water can be made accessible to all. This seems to be the most obvious way of dealing with water scarcity [ 5 ].

In this vein, several efforts have been made over the years to introduce various wastewater treatment technologies such as conventional filtration, coagulation-flocculation, and biological treatment systems among others. There is also improvement of already existing technologies to meet current discharge or reuse standards. One of the wastewater treatment technologies that have seen a major boost over this period is membrane technology. Membrane technology has grown significantly in the last couple of decades due to the benefits it offers in water and wastewater treatment. With significant reduction in the size of equipment, energy requirement and low capital cost, membrane technology offers many prospects in wastewater treatment [ 6 ]. According to Singh and Hankins [ 7 ], membrane technology has the potential of bridging the economical and sustainability gap, amid possibilities of low or no chemical usage, environmental friendliness and easy accessibility to many. That is, membrane technology has proven to be a more favorable option in wastewater treatment processes in recent times.

Even though membrane technology is not a new invention, the varying nature and complexity of wastewater makes room for more improvements, in terms of efficiency, space requirements, energy, quality of permeate, and technical skills requirements. Again, there is continuous modification of membrane modules and membrane elements to enhance the reduction in membrane fouling, which is a major challenge for membrane processes. The possibility of combining two or more membrane processes with each other, or with other forms of technology like coagulation or adsorption, in a hybrid fashion is also continuously being explored, developed and applied in many wastewater treatment facilities [ 7 , 8 , 9 ].

This paper reviews the application of membrane technology in wastewater treatment. It considers the advantages and the disadvantages of these processes. Again, the paper touched on some general terms like membrane modules and their applications, concentration polarization, membrane fouling, and membrane cleaning techniques. It also discusses the prospects of membrane technology.

2. Membrane Technology for Wastewater Treatment

Basically, a membrane is a barrier which separates two phases from each other by restricting movement of components through it in a selective style [ 10 ]. Membranes have been in existence since the 18 th century. Since then, a lot of improvements have taken place to make membranes better suited for many different applications [ 11 ].

Characteristically, membranes can be classified as isotropic or anisotropic. Isotropic membranes are uniform in composition and physical structure. They can be microporous; in which case their permeation fluxes are relatively high compared to when they are nonporous (dense) where their application is highly limited due to low permeation fluxes. Isotropic microporous membranes are widely applied in microfiltration membranes. Anisotropic membranes on the other hand are non-uniform over the membrane area and are made up of different layers with different structures and composition. These membranes have a thin selective layer supported by a thicker and highly permeable layer. They are particularly applied in reverse osmosis (RO) processes [ 12 , 13 ].

In terms of membrane material make up, membranes are classified as either organic or inorganic. Organic membranes are made from synthetic organic polymers. Mostly, membranes for pressure driven separation processes (microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nano filtration and reverse osmosis) are made from synthetic organic polymers. These include polyethylene (PE), polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), polypropylene, and cellulose acetate among others [ 14 ]. Inorganic membranes are made from such materials as ceramics, metals, zeolites, or silica. They are chemically and thermally stable and used widely in industrial applications like hydrogen separation, ultrafiltration, and microfiltration [ 13 , 15 ].

Movement of media through the membranes is based on different driving forces. There are equilibrium based membrane processes, non-equilibrium based membrane processes, pressure driven and non-pressure driven processes [ 16 ]. The schematic diagram below ( Figure 1 ) shows a summary of some of these techniques according to their driving forces. These membrane techniques are discussed individually below.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g001.jpg

Schematic representation of some membrane processes. Modified from [ 16 ].

2.1. Pressure Driven Membrane Processes

Pressure driven membrane processes are by far the most widely applied membrane processes in wastewater treatment, from pretreatment to post-treatment of wastewater. These processes rely on hydraulic pressure to achieve separation. There are four main types of these processes. These are microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nano filtration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO). The main difference exhibited by these processes, apart from their pressure requirements, is their membrane pore sizes [ 17 ]. Table 1 provides a summary of the main features of these processes.

Some features of pressure driven membranes. Adapted from [ 7 , 18 ].

* MWCO = Molecular weight cut off.

Among the pressure driven membrane processes, RO is highly known for its efficiency in separating small particles including bacteria and monovalent ions like sodium ions and chloride ions up to 99.5% [ 18 ]. RO has been at the forefront of water reclamation through wastewater treatment and desalination of seawater for a long time. During reverse osmosis, a hydrostatic pressure is generated that is strong enough to overcome the intrinsic osmotic pressure of the feed. This is against the natural osmosis process. For the complete process, water molecules are absorbed onto the membrane surface (under pressure). These molecules diffuse through the membrane material and finally desorb at the permeate side of the membrane for collection [ 19 ].

Different combinations of these pressure driven membrane processes have been applied in different wastewater treatment settings. In some cases, they serve as pre-treatment to other unit processes. In an experiment, Nataraj, et al. [ 20 ] combined NF and RO to treat distillery wastewater in which an average of 98% of contaminants (colour, total dissolved solids, chemical oxygen demand, and potassium) were removed successfully. In another application, UF and RO were combined in a pilot scale plant to treat wastewater from reactive dye printing. After the UF, the permeate still fell short of the discharge limits, however the RO permeate was fit for discharge and reuse. Contaminants such as urea, sodium alginate, reactive dye and oxidizing agents were successfully removed [ 21 ]. Several other instances of applying these pressure-driven membrane processes are shown in Table 2 .

Some applications of pressure driven membrane processes in wastewater treatment.

* Note: a —chemical oxygen demand, b —total suspended solids, c —biochemical oxygen demand, d —total organic carbon, e —total dissolved solids.

As seen in most of the applications listed above, MF, UF, and NF usually serve as pretreatment steps to RO. This is to reduce fouling of the RO membrane and to enhance the maintenance of constant flux. This also serves as a multi-barrier treatment for removal of contaminants from wastewater [ 32 , 33 ]. Pressure driven membrane processes have undoubtedly made water reclamation from wastewater a good option. However, the challenge still remains with the energy requirements due to the pressure.

2.2. Forward Osmosis (FO)

As shown in Figure 2 , FO follows the natural osmosis process where water molecules are drawn from one solution to the other, through a semipermeable membrane. In this case a draw solution (DS), which is highly concentrated, is used to provide a concentration gradient to draw water molecules from the feed solution (FS). This gradient provides the needed osmotic pressure difference to drive water molecules from the FS to the DS. This movement continues till an equilibrium of chemical potential is reached [ 34 ]. Unless for niche applications, where the water being drawn from the feed forms part of the product, there is always the need for a recovery unit. This unit simultaneously recovers fresh water and regenerates the draw solution [ 35 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g002.jpg

Schematic diagram of forward osmosis.

FO has been applied for the treatment and concentration of different streams of wastewater. Holloway, et al. [ 36 ] applied FO in concentrating anaerobic digester centrate in which an RO system was used to recover and reconstitute the draw solution. Similarly, York, et al. [ 37 ] applied FO in a landfill leachate management using NaCl as a draw solute and RO to recover and reconstitute the draw solution. Up to 95% of the permeate was recovered. In other applications, Zhang, et al. [ 38 ] combined FO and MD to recover water from oily wastewater. Haupt and Lerch [ 39 ] conducted a series of FO experiments to investigate the applicability of FO in an automobile production site and dairy industry. Five different wastewater streams were utilized in turn, as DS and as FS. These wastewater streams were; wastewater treatment RO concentrate, cheese brine, cathodic dip painting rinsing water, paint shop pre-treatment wastewater and cooling water circulation water. Where these effluents were used as FS, 1 mol/L NaCl solution was used as DS. When they were used as DS, deionized water was used as FS. There was also the combination of two or more wastewaters for use as DS or FS. It was found out that cooling tower circulation water and cathodic dip painting rinsing water were very unsuitable for use as DS and therefore cannot be applied in FO in an automobile production site. It was however found out that cathodic dip painting rinsing water and paint shop pre-treatment wastewater proved well as FS when 1 mol/L NaCl was used as DS and can therefore be utilized in an automobile production site in wastewater treatment. The cheese brine was found to be promising for use as DS in dairy wastewater treatment. Thus, FO was found to be applicable in the treatment of these wastewaters. Other applications of FO in wastewater treatment are shown in Table 3 .

Applications of FO in wastewater treatment.

In their write-up on “Forward Osmosis for Sustainable Water Treatment”, Shen, et al. [ 46 ] noted that the method for fresh water recovery after FO is greatly dependent on the kind of draw solute used. Where monovalent ions such as sodium and chloride form part of the draw solution, RO is mostly employed for the recovery whereas multivalent ions, hydrophilic nanoparticles, micelles and polyelectrolytes would require membranes with larger pore sizes like ultra-filtration or nano filtration. FO has several advantages. The process does not require external pressure (especially for niche applications of FO), which makes energy consumption lower compared to pressure driven processes. Fouling reversal and water cleaning is also easier due to the use of osmotic pressure for separation. Flexibility in choosing draw solution makes it easy to customize products, either for freshwater recovery or for other purposes like pharmaceuticals and beverage production in which case properties of products are maintained, since no pressure or heat is applied. Furthermore, the regeneration and reuse of DS is advantageous in saving cost. Challenging (highly concentrated) FS are better treated with FO. For example, for a highly saline feed, more energy would be required by RO to overcome the osmotic pressure, hence making the choice of FO a better one [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ].

With all these promising features of FO, it has some drawbacks that require attention. Apart from niche applications of draw solution, where the draw solute forms part of the final product, further separation is needed to recover fresh water. Low permeate flux due to concentration polarization (CP) is another drawback with FO. This CP affects the net osmotic pressure, hence reducing permeate flux. Again, energy requirements for FO increases with decreasing molecular weight cut off (MWCO). This is because regeneration of draw solutes would require membranes with smaller pores and more pressure like RO. This in effect increases the overall energy requirements [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ].

Draw Solution Selection and Recovery for FO System : As afore-mentioned, FO systems depend on concentration gradients to cause the movement of water molecules. This concentration gradient is provided by the draw solution (DS). Draw solutions are formed when draw agents or solutes are homogeneously dissolved in water to form solution [ 50 ]. Draw solutions play a significant role in FO processes, as they influence permeation flux and cost of regeneration [ 51 ]. Many draw solutions exist. Typical properties of draw solutions include the following; they are characterized by high osmotic pressure, which is their most important feature. Again, DS should have low reverse solute diffusion to FS and should be easily regenerated [ 49 ]. It is also important that DS is non-toxic, highly stable and highly soluble in water to avoid precipitation [ 52 ]. Generally, draw solutes come in different forms viz organic (sucrose, glucose, fructose, EDTA, sodium polyacrylate, sodium lignin sulfonate (NaLS), etc.), inorganic (NaCl, MgCl 2 , Na 2 SO 4 , KCl, KNO 3 , etc.), magnetite nano particles (Fe 2 O 4 ), gases and volatile compounds (ammonia and CO 2 ), [ 53 , 54 ]. The kind of draw solute recovery method to employ depends on the nature of the draw solute used. In general, membrane separation (RO, NF, UF, MD) processes are preferred for salt-based draw solute recovery. For gases and volatile compounds such as SO 2 , NH 3 /CO 2 thermal separation is used. Other methods include precipitation for sulphate base draw solutes like Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 , Mg(SO 4 ), Cu(SO 4 ) and stimuli based recovery process for hydrogels and magnetite nano particles [ 55 , 56 ]

2.3. Electro-Dialysis (ED) and Electro-Dialysis Reversal (EDR)

Electro-dialysis and electro-dialysis reversal are processes that combine electricity and ion-permeable membranes to separate dissolved ions from water. These processes make use of an electric potential to transfer the ions from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through an ion-permeable membrane [ 57 ]. As shown in Figure 3 , during the electro dialysis, two types of ion exchange membrane are used. One is permeable to anions and rejects cations and the other is permeable to cations and rejects anions. There are also two streams of solutions. The concentrate and the diluate (feed). When electric current is passed through the system, ions from the diluate migrate into the concentrate through oppositely charged membranes (cations migrate to the cathode whiles anions migrate to the anode). The cations are then retained by the positively charged anion-exchange membrane (AEM). Likewise, the anions are retained by the cation-exchange membrane (CEM). The outcome of this is a feed stream depleted of ions while the concentrate stream becomes rich in ions [ 58 , 59 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g003.jpg

Schematic diagram of ED.

EDR involves the periodic reversal of the electrodes of the membrane and hence reversing the movement of ions. This causes concentrated streams to be diluted and diluted streams to be concentrated, hence reducing fouling of the membrane [ 60 ]. ED and EDR have been applied in many ways in wastewater treatment. Table 4 shows some common applications.

Application of ED and EDR in wastewater treatment.

* Cd = Cadmium, * Sn = tin.

ED and EDR are very useful in wastewater treatment mainly to remove total dissolved solids (TDS) and other ionized constituent particles. ED and EDR have very high-water recovery rate and require little pretreatment for feed water. There is also less membrane fouling due to process reversal and the technology can be combined with renewable energy sources [ 67 ].

However, ED is not suitable for wastewater streams with high salinities because desalination energy is proportional to the ions that are removed. This would then be very expensive to operate. The process also does not remove non-ionized compounds and substances such as viruses and bacteria, which are very harmful. This implies that a post treatment would be required, which would make the process expensive. Furthermore, due to the generation of chlorine gas at the anode, corrosion can set in [ 7 , 57 , 58 , 59 ].

2.4. Pervaporation

This separation technique combines membrane permeation and evaporation to separate liquid mixtures based on a preference. As shown in Figure 4 , the liquid mixture is fed to the membrane on the one side while the permeate evaporates on the other side [ 68 ]. During this process, sorption of the permeate in the upstream occurs. By this, the more permeable component of the liquid mixture is sorbed onto the membrane (nonporous polymeric membrane or molecularly porous inorganic membrane). These components then diffuse through the membrane under the influence of a concentration gradient of the diffusing species and subsequently evaporate at the downstream phase of the membrane. The vapor is then condensed and recovered as liquid. This mode of mass transport across the membrane is known as the solution–diffusion model [ 68 , 69 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g004.jpg

Schematic diagram of Pervaporation.

This technology has been applied mainly in ethanol-water separation. It is, however, being explored for wastewater treatment in many areas of production.

Edgar, et al. [ 70 ] applied pervaporation in micro irrigation of plants from wastewater. In the experiment, a dense hydrophilic pervaporation membrane was placed at vantage positions in the soil. Synthetic wastewater in a feed tank was circulated over the membranes where the permeate flux and enrichment of the wastewater (contaminant rejection) were monitored. The results showed that this technology has prospects in the treatment of brackish ground water or wastewater for micro irrigation purposes.

In a pilot scale experiment to remove organic solvents (benzene, toluene, naphtha, butane, ethyl ether, etc.) from dilute aqueous streams, Wijmans, et al. [ 71 ] used 100 organophilic membranes to remove and concentrate these solvents from the aqueous stream. It was observed that it was possible to concentrate the organic solvents at least 50–100-fold, thereby making available a cleaner stream of wastewater for re-use or discharge.

In a similar work, Kondo and Sato [ 72 ] used a polyether block amide (PEBA) membrane, which is aromatic hydrocarbon selective to remove phenol from industrial wastewater discharged from a phenolic resin process. The wastewater contained up to 10% phenol and other contaminants. After experiments, phenol concentrations detected were below 300 mg/L. the characteristic nature of pervaporation makes it applicable for target specific contaminants. Table 5 shows some target specific applications of pervaporation in wastewater treatment.

Applications of pervaporation in the removal of specific contaminants.

* wt% = Percentage by weight.

Due to the specialty in application, pervaporation membranes are specially designed to have higher affinity for the component to be separated. This implies that the chemical nature and structure of the membrane plays a significant role in achieving the intended separation [ 79 ]. Other factors that affect the processes of pervaporation include feed concentration, partial pressure, temperature and feed flow rate [ 80 ].

In addition to its ability to separate liquid mixtures where conventional separation processes are limited, pervaporation is known to be an energy saving and eco-friendly technology [ 81 ]. There are, however, some drawbacks with this technology. Large industrial application is still not reached due to its highly sensitive operating conditions. Again, the application of pervaporation beyond dehydration is on the low side due to a lack of specialized membrane and the cost of these membranes [ 68 , 82 ].

3. Hybrid Membrane Processes

Hybrid membrane processes refer to the combination of one or more membrane techniques with other unit processes like coagulation, ion exchange, adsorption or other membrane processes to give a better performance than either of the technologies as a standalone process [ 83 ]. Each component within the hybrid process tends to complement the drawbacks of the other, thereby enhancing the production of more quality treated water [ 84 ]. With an increase in stringent discharge standards and the radical search for alternative sources of water, more hybrid membrane processes are being explored. Also, due to the high risk of fouling of membranes, other unit processes such as coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, or other membrane processes are introduced as pretreatment steps to reduce fouling of the membranes [ 8 ].

The main focus for hybrid membrane processes is to produce water for drinking or with different degrees of quality for other applications like irrigation, janitorial services or to use as cooling water in industrial processes. In a series of applications, low pressure membrane processes (MF, UF) were combined with activated carbon in the treatment of contaminated ground water for drinking. The combination was able to remove particulate matter and protozoa including Giardia, pathogenic bacteria, Cryptosporidium and dissolved organic matter, making potable water available for use [ 8 ]. In a similar fashion, Xiangli, et al. [ 85 ] combined coagulation as a pre-treatment to UF, in which 10,000 m 3 per day of potable water was produced from a highly turbid river, the Taihu river, China. The combination ably reduced fouling of the UF membrane, leading to the maintenance of specific flux of up to 190,200 L/m 2 ·hr·bar.

3.1. Forward Osmosis—Reverse Osmosis Hybrid Systems

In other related developments, FO-RO hybrid systems are being explored for simultaneous treatment of wastewater and desalination of seawater. Figure 5 shows a simplified set up of an FO-RO set up for simultaneous wastewater treatment and seawater desalination.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g005.jpg

Hybrid FO-RO system for simultaneous seawater desalination and wastewater treatment.

In this setup, wastewater of relatively low salinity is used to dilute seawater to reduce the pressure required by reverse osmosis for desalination. In this process, the chemical potential of the seawater provides a concentration gradient which causes diffusion of water from the wastewater stream through a semi-permeable membrane into the seawater stream [ 86 ]. As shown in Figure 5 , the wastewater stream and the saline stream are circulated over the opposite sides of a semi-permeable membrane (designated FO). Through the contacts made with the membrane, water molecules move from the wastewater stream into the seawater stream thereby diluting the seawater stream before the reverse osmosis step. The brine from the RO is recycled into the seawater feed tank to boost the concentration gradient. Consequently, the wastewater is treated simultaneously with the desalination of the seawater. This hybrid process has a huge advantage of low external energy requirements for solvent-solute separation and serves as a multi-barrier for contaminant removal [ 87 ].

3.2. Membrane Bioreactors

Another interesting hybrid membrane process worth talking about is membrane bioreactors. This is a technology that combines biological processes like activated sludge and membrane processes like UF, NF, MF, etc. for wastewater treatment purposes or for resource recovery from wastewater [ 7 , 88 ]. Over the past couple of decades, MBRs have surfaced as efficient wastewater treatment techniques as they fill in the gaps left by conventional activated sludge processes such as their inability to cope with fluctuations in effluent flow rates and composition as well as their failure to meet higher effluent discharge limits for reuse purposes. MBRs also save much space compared to conventional treatment systems [ 89 , 90 ]. Two configurations are currently in use, namely side stream MBR and immersed MBR as shown in Figure 6 . The side stream MBR was the first to be introduced. With the side stream MBR, the membranes or filtration element are installed outside the bioreactor, needing an intermediate pumping system which transfers the biomass for filtration and residue from the filtration set up back to the bioreactor. This set up is advantageous, in that the membrane module is easily accessible for cleaning, however, due to the high energy and pressure requirements, the side stream MBRs have had limited application in recent years [ 91 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g006.jpg

The two types of MBR, diagram taken from [ 92 ].

In the immersed or submerged MBR, the membranes are directly immersed in the tank containing the biological sludge and the treated permeate is extracted as shown in Figure 5 B. This configuration was first introduced by Yamamoto, et al. [ 93 ]. It became highly patronized due to its simplicity and low energy requirements compared to the side stream MBR. It however has its own drawbacks in difficulty in cleaning the membrane units as the units are immersed in the bioreactor [ 94 , 95 ].

3.3. Membrane Distillation

Membrane distillation (MD) is a growing membrane technology being explored. This hybrid membrane process is said to have existed for more than 50years, with little development for large scale or commercial use [ 7 ]. Membrane distillation can be defined as the application of heat to separate substances based on their volatilities. In this technique, water vapor is transported across a hydrophobic microporous membrane, based on vapor pressure gradient across the membrane [ 48 , 96 ]. This heat driven process is mainly beneficial for separating feed solutions with high water content. MD is adapted to use low grade thermal energy (<100 °C) to provide the needed vapor pressure difference between the feed side and the product side of the membrane [ 48 , 97 , 98 ]. For example, Alkhudhiri, et al. [ 99 ] applied MD in the treatment of produced water from the Arabian gulf where they found MD very promising in terms of achieving high permeate flux and energy utilization. Kiai, et al. [ 100 ] applied MD in the treatment of table olive wastewater high in phenols. Membranes of different pore sizes were used to evaluate the effects on permeate quality and phenol concentration. Product quality was found to be high with phenolic concentration below 16 mg of TYE/L (tyrosol equivalent per liter) and conductivity levels of less than 193 µS/cm. In textile wastewater treatment, Calabrò, et al. [ 101 ] studied the energy efficiency of a MD system with respect to distillate flux, distillate purity and temperature polarization. According to their results, the energy efficiency of MD can be improved by increasing the driving force on the membrane. They found MD as a potential treatment method for textile effluent and the recovery of quality water for re-use. Table 6 shows some other applications of MD in treatment of wastewater.

Some application of MD in wastewater treatment.

* PU-PTFE = Polytetrafluorethylene with Polyurethane surface layer.

Characteristically, membranes for MD should have low resistance to mass transfer in order to enable free flow of mass. To enhance heat maintenance in the system, membrane material must have a low thermal conductivity and very importantly also, a membrane for MD must also have low affinity for water to guard against unnecessary wetting of the membrane. Pore sizes usually range from 0.1 µm to 1 µm [ 98 ]. MD has many attractive prospects. It can be driven by renewable energy sources such as solar or wind. Waste heat recovered from industrial processes can also be used. In terms of pressure requirements, MD uses low hydrostatic pressure compared to Reverse Osmosis (RO). For example, MD can be performed at operating pressures near atmospheric pressure. Again, as compared to pressure driven membrane processes, membrane fouling is less due to larger pore size requirements. In terms of separating nonvolatile materials from volatile ones, feed product separation is 100%. Contaminant concentration has no influence on product quality [ 107 , 108 ].

All these notwithstanding, MD has some drawbacks. Firstly, poor history of its usage, leads to uncertain water production costs (WPC). Secondly, non-availability of membranes specifically designed for MD puts the process at very high risk when membranes meant for other processes are employed. This can lead to membrane wetting, which in turn creates room for organic deposits and consequently leading to vigorous pretreatment requirements. This makes the process more expensive. Finally, since heat and mass transfer take place simultaneously, a fluid boundary layer is formed, which leads to temperature polarization (TP). TP is a phenomenon that occurs as a result of difference in temperature between the bulk of the feed and the feed-membrane interface (where evaporation of water occurs) and the difference in temperature between the permeate-membrane interface (where condensation occurs) and the permeate itself. This temperature polarization has a negative effect on the driving force, leading to lower permeate flux [ 7 , 52 , 98 , 109 ].

3.3.1. Membrane Distillation Configurations

In order to provide the needed driving force for MD, four main configurations are usually considered as shown in Figure 7 . These are: direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD), air gap membrane distillation (AGMD), vacuum membrane distillation (VMG), and sweeping gas membrane distillation (SGMD) [ 110 ]. However, recent developments in MD have considered hybrid combinations such as thermostatic sweeping gas membrane distillation (TSGMD) and liquid gap membrane distillation (LGMD) [ 111 ]. These configurations are briefly discussed below.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g007.jpg

Schematic diagrams for the different types of MD configurations. Modified from [ 110 ].

3.3.2. Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD)

DCMD is the most used MD configuration. In this process, like conventional distillation, the hydrophobic microporous membrane maintains a direct contact between the feed and the permeate. This happens because evaporation of water from the feed and condensation of this vapor occurs simultaneously, forming a liquid-vapor interface at the membrane pores. It is worthy to note that the vapor pressure difference is induced by the trans-membrane temperature difference, which is as a result of the lower temperature maintained at the permeate side of the membrane [ 7 , 110 ]. The main challenge with DCMD is the heat loss due to conduction.

3.3.3. Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD)

In AGMD, a stationary air gap is introduced between the membrane and the condensation surface. Vaporized molecules travel across the stationary air gap and condense on the cold surface within the membrane module by natural convection caused by the temperature difference in the air gap. While this module serves to reduce heat loss through conduction, the resultant permeate flux is low [ 112 ].

3.3.4. Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD)

This design configuration makes use of vacuum, provided by a vacuum pump at the permeate side of the membrane. The constant low pressure provided by the vacuum pump must be lower than the saturation pressure of the volatile components of the feed. This low pressure enhances movement of the vaporized permeate. In effect, separation is achieved by the partial pressure difference across the membrane. Condensation of permeate takes place outside the membrane module [ 96 ].

3.3.5. Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD)

As the name suggests, SGMD makes use of a gas, usually inert gas, to sweep away the vaporized permeate from the membrane permeate side. Since the condensation of the vaporized permeate occurs outside the membrane module, external condensers are needed to collect the product water. Even though this design prevents loss of heat through conduction due to the gas barrier created, the need for external condensers make it complicated [ 107 , 110 ].

3.3.6. Thermostatic Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation (TSGMD)

This is a modified form of SGMD and AGMD. In this design, a cold wall is added in the cold chamber. This cold wall helps minimize the increase in the sweeping gas temperature. Like the AGMD, some of the permeate condenses on the cold wall within the membrane module, whereas the rest is swept away by the inert gas into an external condenser, just like the SGMD [ 110 , 112 , 113 ].

3.3.7. Liquid Gap Membrane Distillation (LGMD)

In this design, a third channel is introduced, on which the permeate condenses. This channel is usually a non-permeable foil which also separates the permeate from the coolant. This is very advantageous since it provides the option of choice of coolant. The foil also helps in reducing the overall temperature difference across the membrane [ 114 , 115 ]

4. Membrane Modules and Selection

For large scale membrane processes, like industrial or other commercial uses of membranes, large membrane areas are required. These large membrane areas are packaged economically into what is known as modules. There are mainly four types of membrane modules, namely plate and frame module, tubular module, spiral wound module and hollow fiber modules [ 13 ]. A summary of some of the properties of the membrane modules is shown in Table 7 . These are further discussed briefly below.

Basic properties of various membrane modules (Adapted from [ 116 ]).

4.1. Plate-and-Frame Module

This is one of the earliest modules developed. It consists of the membrane, feed spacers and product spacers which are bedded together into a metallic frame [ 117 ]. These spacers prevent sticking together of the membrane as well as provide channels for flow of feed and product. It is worthy to note, however, that this module is not generally in use, but employed for special purposes like treatment of wastewaters with high levels of suspended solids, e.g., landfill leachate. Figure 8 shows a typical plate-and-frame design.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g008.jpg

Plate and frame membrane module. Adapted from [ 13 ].

4.2. Tubular Module

This module consists of an outer housing, referred to as shell. This shell is tubular in nature. Within this tubular shell, is a perforated or porous stainless steel or fiberglass pipe, within which a semi-permeable membrane is embedded. The fluid to be treated is fed into the tube under pressure. The permeate from the membrane passes through the perforated pipe into the inside of the housing and then collected through the permeate outlet [ 118 ]. Tubular membranes are adapted to treating feed with high solid contents.

4.3. Spiral Wound Module

This membrane module is the most widely applied in RO and NF operations. The configuration offers a high packing density leading to high membrane surface area. This design is made up of a number of membranes, permeate spacers and feed spacers wound around a perforated central collection tube. These are in turn placed into a tubular pressure vessel. Water to be treated enters the spiral wound module at a tangent to the membrane. In this way, permeate flows perpendicular to the membrane surface, through the permeate spacers and finally collected in the central collection tube. [ 13 , 119 ]. This module has the advantage of easy replacement of module elements and scaled up for large scale operations [ 120 ]. Figure 9 shows a representation of this module.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g009.jpg

Spiral wound membrane module. Adapted from [ 121 ].

4.4. Hollow Fiber Module

This module type houses a bundle of hollow fibers, whether closed or open end, in a pressure vessel. Hollow fibers consist of a porous nonselective support layer of about 200 µm and an active layer of thickness >40 nm. This active layer is the actual membrane, but needs support to be able to withstand the hydrostatic pressure [ 122 ].

Hollow fiber modules are either shell-side (outside) feed types or bore-side (inside) feed types, depending on their use. For high pressure purpose applications (up to 70 bar), the shell-side feed type is preferred, whereas for low to medium pressure purpose applications, the bore-side feed type is preferred. Figure 10 shows a diagram of the hollow fiber membrane. A very notable advantage of this module type is its ability to house large membrane areas in a single module. However, it is very expensive to produce due to the sophistication of the production process and the huge capital requirements [ 13 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is membranes-10-00089-g010.jpg

( A ) Bore side feed hollow fiber membrane modules, ( B ) Shell side feed hollow fiber membrane module. Adapted from [ 122 ].

5. Concentration Polarization (CP)

CP is defined as a phenomenon where particle concentration near the membrane surface is higher than in the major part of the fluid [ 123 ]. CP is common to all membrane filtration processes. The mechanism of CP is such that a layer of accumulated solute particles is formed on the membrane surface as the permeate flows through the membrane. Since particle concentration is less in the permeate, there is a huge difference in concentrations of these particles at the permeate side and the feed side of the membrane [ 124 ]. Such a concentration difference would cause movement of solvent molecules backwards until equilibrium is formed. In FO, CP occurs within the porous support layer. This is known as internal concentration polarization (ICP). CP affects permeate flux, as the boundary layer formed as a result of accumulation of solute particles prevents easy movement of permeate through the membrane. Consequently, the longevity of the membrane is compromised. This eventually leads to high cost of the membrane process. Methods to reduce CP broadly fall under pretreatments, membrane modification, fluid management, or effective cleaning [ 125 , 126 ]. Pretreatment basically removes or reduces particles that contribute to concentration polarization. Section 6 discusses some pretreatment strategies used in membrane separation processes.

Membrane modification is mainly applied in FO membranes to deal with internal concentration polarization. In their study, Wang, et al. [ 127 ] developed a double skinned FO membrane using cellulose acetate (CA) which was found to be very promising in reducing ICP. Again, Chi, et al. [ 128 ] modified the surface of cellulose triacetate FO membrane (CTA) with magnetite nanomaterial to utilize the interforce between magnetic draw solutions and the magnetite to reduce ICP. The novel method was found to effectively reduce ICP in the FO membrane. In the same vein, Liu, et al. [ 129 ] modified a thin film composite (TFC) FO membrane surface with CaCO 3 coated polyethersulfone which is highly hydrophobic. This improved the intrinsic ability of the membrane to draw water and resist ICP.

In pressure driven membrane processes, flow dynamics such as turbulence flow regimes, flow in curved channels, vibrations in membrane modules, pulsative flow techniques etc. are mainly used in controlling CP [ 125 ]. Mo, et al. [ 130 ] studied the effects of inserting spacers in a membrane channel on CP. The study showed that spacers can introduce some hydrodynamic conditions that reduce CP. In a review titled Static Turbulent Promoters in Cross flow Filtration, Bhattacharjee, et al. [ 131 ] noted that static mixers, kenics mixers, helical elements, cylindrical rods, thin wires, and spacers are widely utilized to induce turbulence in membrane filtration systems in order to control CP and enhance permeate flux. In an investigation conducted by Su, et al. [ 132 ], vibrations were imposed in RO membrane module during desalination to control CP. The authors found the technique to be useful in reducing CP and improving membrane flux. Periodic cleaning procedures, such as backwashing, back flushing, and chemical and physical cleaning, also play a good role in mitigating CP. They are discussed in more detail in Section 6 .

6. Membrane Fouling and Pretreatment Strategies

Membrane fouling occurs when suspended solids, microbes, organic materials etc. are deposited on the membrane surface or within the membrane pores thereby causing decreased permeate flux [ 133 ]. Fouling can be considered irreversible when foulants (materials causing the fouling) are deposited in the pores of the membrane. When the foulants are merely deposited on the surface of the membrane, they form a cake layer which causes resistance to permeate movement. This fouling is considered reversible [ 133 ]. Membrane fouling affects the membrane performance as the movement of permeates is greatly hindered. Consequently, higher pressure than normal is needed to ensure passage of permeates through the membrane. The higher the fouling, the more the pressure required [ 116 ]. Membrane fouling has dire consequences on overall membrane performance. These include high energy consumption, more down time, reduction in membrane filtration area etc.

There are different forms of fouling, depending on the foulant. These include colloidal fouling, bio-fouling, organic fouling and inorganic fouling (scaling) [ 134 ]. Colloids can be either organic, inorganic, or as composites. These may include microorganisms, biological debris, polysaccharides, lipoproteins, clay, silt, oils, iron and manganese oxides etc. These materials accumulate and stick to membrane material over time [ 135 ]. Biofouling is the deposition and growth of biofilms on a membrane. These biofilms consist mainly of microbial cells and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), which are formed as a result of the attachment of microorganisms to moist surfaces. In this medium, these organisms feed on accumulated nutrient in the system and grow, consequently blocking the pores of the membrane and increasing resistance to permeate flow [ 136 ].

Inorganic fouling (scale) is the deposition of inorganic salts on the membrane surface. These salts may include, but not limited to CaSO 4 , CaCO 3 , and SiO 2 [ 137 ]. During the formation of the scales, poorly soluble salts precipitate out of solution onto the membrane surface when their concentrations exceed their solubility limits [ 138 ]. Organic fouling occurs when there is adsorption of organic compounds present in natural organic matter onto the surface of the membrane and accumulate over time, hindering permeate movement through the membrane [ 134 ].

It is worthy to note that membrane fouling depends on feed characteristics like pH and ionic strength, membrane characteristics like roughness, hydrophobicity etc., and process conditions like cross flow velocity, trans-membrane pressure and temperature. All these factors interact in one way or another to enhance membrane fouling [ 139 , 140 ].

6.1. Methods of Fouling Control: Membrane Cleaning

Membrane separation is largely a size exclusion mechanism. By principle, the particles rejected, end up fouling the membrane. This makes fouling in membranes inevitable. Some techniques have been proposed to reduce fouling in membranes. Relevance of these techniques depends on the properties of the feed solution and the membrane. Some of these techniques include: boundary layer velocity control, turbulence inducers, membrane material modification, and the use of external fields [ 141 ]. In the same vein, feed pretreatment, flow manipulation, rotating membranes, and gas sparging were recommended by Williams and Wakeman [ 142 ].

Membrane cleaning comes in to restore the permeation flux of a membrane which is lost as a result of fouling. This involves the removal of deposited materials on the membrane in order to pave way for movement of permeate. Membrane cleaning can be classified largely as physical, chemical, biological/biochemical or physico-chemical. Again, cleaning can be referred to as in-situ when the membrane module remains within the reactor during cleaning or ex-situ when the membrane module is removed and cleaned separately [ 143 , 144 ].

Physical cleaning: This involves mechanical treatment of the membrane to dislodge and remove foulants from the membrane [ 140 ]. These treatments include:

Periodic back flushing: this involves the application of pressure on the permeate side of the membrane, thereby causing backward movement of the permeate through the membrane. This causes deposited materials to be lifted off the membrane surface. The pressure applied to cause the backwash needs to be higher than the filtration pressure [ 140 , 142 ]. Backwashing is the most widely used fouling reversal technique used in industry. It is known to effectively regain flux from fouling caused by the deposition of materials on the surfaces of the membranes as a gel or cake layer. It is however not effective for removal of irreversible fouling, which is caused mainly by clogging of the membrane pores with colloidal suspensions and dissolved materials [ 145 ].

Pneumatic cleaning: This includes air sparging, air lifting and air scouring. Basically, this involves cleaning of the membrane with air under pressure. The air destabilizes and loosens the foulants from the membranes by causing a shear force on the membrane surface. Air may be used for direct cleaning or to enhance permeate flow by bubbling it through the feed. This process is advantageous for the fact that there is no chemical usage, however the cost of pumping air is a huge factor to contend with [ 143 , 146 ].

Ultra-sonic cleaning: This process utilizes ultrasound to cause agitation in a liquid medium. The formation, growth and collapse of bubbles during the process (cavitation) transmit energy in the form of turbulence to the membrane surface, which dislodges foulants from the membrane surface [ 147 ]. Since the waves are transmitted at the molecular level, ultrasonic cleaning is very effective in cleaning the surface of the membrane. This physical cleaning process depends on ultrasonic power, cleaning temperature, cross flow velocity and pulse duration [ 147 , 148 , 149 ]

Sponge ball cleaning: This involves the use of sponge balls to wipe the surface of membranes. The sponge ball, which is usually made of materials like polyurethane is inserted into the permeator and as it moves through the permeator, it scrubs the surface of the membrane, thereby scrapping off the foulants. This is a mechanical cleaning process which is applicable to tubular membranes with large diameters [ 140 , 150 ].

Chemical Cleaning is employed in situations with irreversible fouling. The basis of chemical cleaning is the knowledge of the interactions between foulant and membrane material, foulant and cleaning chemical and cleaning chemical and membrane material. These play a great role in selecting most appropriate chemical for the cleaning process [ 151 ]. Chemical cleaning is expected to have the following effects on a fouled membrane: loosen and dissolve foulant, keep foulant in solution, avoid causing new fouling, and not attack the membrane being cleaned. Chemical cleaning is done mainly as a cleaning in place (CIP) process, where the retentate channel is filled with the cleaning solution (detergent) which weakens the bonds of the foulant over time. This then gives room for normal cross flow to remove these foulants [ 152 ].

Generally, cleaning agents are classified as acids, alkalis/bases, chelating agents or sequestrants, enzymes, surfactants, or disinfectants. All these agents are accustomed to removing foulants of different composition or charge. For example, acid cleaning aims at removing inorganic foulants like salt precipitates or scales and metal oxides. The acids commonly used include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ), nitric acid (NHO 3 ) and phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 ) [ 143 , 153 ]. Alkalis/bases are mainly employed at high pH levels (11–12) or less, depending on the nature of the membrane. They are used mostly in organic fouling cleaning. The main Alkalis/bases used is sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Other forms of alkalis employed include carbonates and phosphates [ 140 , 150 ].

Biological/biochemical cleaning is defined as the use of bioactive agents like enzymes, enzyme mixtures, or signal molecules for foulant removal from membranes [ 154 ]. Unlike physical and chemical cleaning that damage the membrane, biological and biochemical processes have low footprints in membrane cleaning and are more sustainable. In most cases, enzymatic cleaning, energy uncoupling and quorum quenching are applied cleaning operations especially in membrane bioreactors [ 144 , 154 , 155 ]. This type of cleaning is mostly employed in cleaning of membranes used in abattoir wastewater treatment.

Physico-chemical cleaning methods: As the name suggests, this method combines physical and chemical cleaning for foulant removal. This involves the addition of chemical agents to physical cleaning methods to enhance its effectiveness of the cleaning process. A typical example of physico chemical cleaning method is the chemically enhanced backwashing (CEB). Another example is the use of ultrasound in chemical cleaning which is able to enhance flux recovery of up to 95% [ 156 , 157 ].

6.2. Pretreatment Strategies for Membrane Processes

Pretreatment is the initial treatment given to wastewater prior to the application of membrane separation processes. Feed pretreatment plays an integral part in the success of membrane process. Pretreatments do not only reduce membrane fouling, they also contribute to energy utilization. Technically, pretreatments change the physical, chemical or biological properties of wastewater so as to make membrane separation more efficient [ 158 ].

Different methods are adopted as pretreatments to precondition influents for membrane separation. Physicochemical methods such as coagulation, adsorption and softening have been applied in several instances to pretreat wastewater before membrane separation [ 159 ]. In the treatment of produced water, Sardari, et al. [ 160 ] applied electrocoagulation as a pretreatment to DCMD. The results showed 57% water recoveries from produced water of containing 135 /L dissolved solids. In similar applications, Chang, et al. [ 161 ] and Kong, et al. [ 162 ] pretreated shale gas flow back water and produced water with chemical coagulation prior to treatment with UF. Both studies found a significant reduction in fouling of the membranes and maintenance of constant flux. These physicochemical pretreatment methods are efficient in removal of suspended solids and organic contaminants that have high membrane fouling abilities. There is also the combination of coagulation/flocculation and adsorption as pretreatment methods for membrane processes. This is to further enhance the removal of dissolved and colloidal substances from feed wastewater as proved by [ 163 , 164 , 165 , 166 , 167 , 168 ].

Pre-filtration is another method used as pretreatment to membrane processes. Pre-filtration may include the use of packed bed filters, strainers, filter cloths or low pressure membranes processes (some of which are shown in Table 2 ) [ 158 ]. In a pilot scale experiment, Tooker and Darby [ 169 ] pretreated secondary effluent from the wastewater treatment plant of the University of California, Davis using a cloth media filter for onward treatment by microfiltration. The final effluent was found to be of high quality, having low values of turbidity and BOD, as well as non-detectable levels of total and fecal coliform bacteria. In a similar application, López Zavala, et al. [ 170 ] employed felt and compressed polyester in the pretreatment of gray water from washing machine discharges. The pretreatment method was found to improve MF and UF performances in terms of an increase in flux and reduction in fouling rates. Again, in purification of olive mill (Peloponnisos, Greece) wastewater, Paraskeva, et al. [ 171 ] studied the combination of UF and RO. Prior to the UF, a polypropylene filter (80 µ) was used to pretreat the wastewater, removing suspended solids. The resultant effluent was fit for discharge and irrigation purposes.

Other forms of pretreatment include the use of dissolved air flotation [ 172 , 173 ] and biological pretreatment methods [ 174 , 175 , 176 ].

7. Recommendations for Further Research

Membrane technology is gradually revolutionalising water and wastewater treatment. Much work has been done in this area over the years. There is however still room for improvement in many areas. As fouling and high energy demand remain a major issue in non-equilibrium pressure driven processes, continuous research is needed to find a lasting solution to them, either through introduction of rigorous but cheap pre-treatment processes or through development of fouling resistant membranes. In membrane distillation, continuous studies are needed to adequately understand the concept of temperature polarization and, accordingly, developing suitable membranes will help make the process more viable for large scale application.

Improvements in draw solute recovery processes are needed to make FO applications cheaper. Future research should look at the possibility of other recovery methods for salt-based draw solutes. Further studies in ED, EDR, and pervaporation should focus more on membrane development and energy utilisation.

8. Conclusions

There is an unending list of membrane technology applications in wastewater treatment. This paper attempted to summarize the major ones that are used, citing examples of their application, their advantages and disadvantages, as well as some membrane related areas like fouling and module structures. Hopefully, this paper is useful in providing good information for further research into membrane technology applications in wastewater treatment.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to the Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology (DUT) and FFS Refiners for their support.

Abbreviations

Author contributions.

Conceptualization: E.O.E.; resources: S.R. writing: E.O.E.; writing (review and editing): E.O.E. and S.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

review of literature on wastewater treatment

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

A critical review of resource recovery from municipal wastewater treatment plants – market supply potentials, technologies and bottlenecks.

ORCID logo

* Corresponding authors

a Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Building 58, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected] , [email protected] , [email protected]

b Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya BarcelonaTech, 106D c/Jordi Girona 1-3, Building D1, Barcelona, Spain E-mail: [email protected]

c Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653 geb. B, 9000 Gent, Belgium E-mail: [email protected]

In recent decades, academia has elaborated a wide range of technological solutions to recover water, energy, fertiliser and other products from municipal wastewater treatment plants. Drivers for this work range from low resource recovery potential and cost effectiveness, to the high energy demands and large environmental footprints of current treatment-plant designs. However, only a few technologies have been implemented and a shift from wastewater treatment plants towards water resource facilities still seems far away. This critical review aims to inform decision-makers in water management utilities about the vast technical possibilities and market supply potentials, as well as the bottlenecks, related to the design or redesign of a municipal wastewater treatment process from a resource recovery perspective. Information and data have been extracted from literature to provide a holistic overview of this growing research field. First, reviewed data is used to calculate the potential of 11 resources recoverable from municipal wastewater treatment plants to supply national resource consumption. Depending on the resource, the supply potential may vary greatly. Second, resource recovery technologies investigated in academia are reviewed comprehensively and critically. The third section of the review identifies nine non-technical bottlenecks mentioned in literature that have to be overcome to successfully implement these technologies into wastewater treatment process designs. The bottlenecks are related to economics and value chain development, environment and health, and society and policy issues. Considering market potentials, technological innovations, and addressing potential bottlenecks early in the planning and process design phase, may facilitate the design and integration of water resource facilities and contribute to more circular urban water management practices.

Graphical abstract: A critical review of resource recovery from municipal wastewater treatment plants – market supply potentials, technologies and bottlenecks

  • This article is part of the themed collections: Best Papers of 2020 from RSC’s Environmental Science journals and Best Papers 2020 – Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

Article information

review of literature on wastewater treatment

Download Citation

Permissions.

review of literature on wastewater treatment

P. Kehrein, M. van Loosdrecht, P. Osseweijer, M. Garfí, J. Dewulf and J. Posada, Environ. Sci.: Water Res. Technol. , 2020,  6 , 877 DOI: 10.1039/C9EW00905A

This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported Licence . You can use material from this article in other publications without requesting further permissions from the RSC, provided that the correct acknowledgement is given.

Read more about how to correctly acknowledge RSC content .

Social activity

Search articles by author, advertisements.

Accessibility Links

  • Skip to content
  • Skip to search IOPscience
  • Skip to Journals list
  • Accessibility help
  • Accessibility Help

Click here to close this panel.

Inclusive Publishing Trusted Science, find out more.

As a society-owned publisher with a legacy of serving scientific communities, we are committed to offering a home to all scientifically valid and rigorously reviewed research. In doing so, we aim to accelerate the dissemination of scientific knowledge and the advancement of scholarly communications to benefit all.

Materials Research Express supports this mission and actively demonstrates our core values of inclusive publishing and trusted science . To find out more about these values and how they can help you publish your next paper with us, visit our journal scope .

Purpose-led Publishing is a coalition of three not-for-profit publishers in the field of physical sciences: AIP Publishing, the American Physical Society and IOP Publishing.

Together, as publishers that will always put purpose above profit, we have defined a set of industry standards that underpin high-quality, ethical scholarly communications.

We are proudly declaring that science is our only shareholder.

Recent advances of silicate materials for wastewater treatment: a review

Meng Xu 1 , Jinshu Wang 1 and Junshu Wu 1

What is an Accepted Manuscript?

Article metrics

2 Total downloads

Share this article

Author e-mails.

[email protected]

Author affiliations

1 Beijing University of Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Chaoyang District, Beijing, Beijing, 100022, CHINA

Jinshu Wang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7970-665X

Junshu Wu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9186-9419

  • Received 18 September 2023
  • Revised 10 February 2024
  • Accepted 22 February 2024
  • Accepted Manuscript online 22 February 2024

Peer review information

Method : Single-anonymous Revisions: 3 Screened for originality? Yes

Heavy metal ions and organic pollutants cause irreversible damage to water environment, thereby posing significant threats to the well-being of organisms. The techniques of adsorption and photocatalytic degradation offer versatile solutions for addressing water pollution challenges, attributed to their inherent sustainability and adaptability. Silicates exhibit exceptional practicality in the realm of environmental protection owing to their structural integrity and robust chemical/thermal stability during hybridization and application process. Furthermore, the abundance of silicate reserves, coupled with their proven effectiveness, has garnered significant attention in recent years. This detailed review compiles and analyzes the extensive body of literature spanning the past six years (2018-2023), emphasizing the pivotal discoveries associated with employing silicates as water purification materials. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of the structure, classification, and chemical composition of diverse silicates and offers a thorough descriptive analysis of their performance in eliminating pollutants. Additionally, the utilization of diatomite as either precursors or substrates for silicates, along with the exploration of their corresponding purification mechanisms is discussed. The review unequivocally verifies the efficiency of silicates and their composites in the effective elimination of various toxic pollutants. However, the development of novel silicates capable of adapting to diverse environmental conditions to enhance pollution control, remains an urgent necessity.

Export citation and abstract BibTeX RIS

review of literature on wastewater treatment

As the Version of Record of this article is going to be / has been published on a gold open access basis under a CC BY 4.0 licence, this Accepted Manuscript is available for reuse under a CC BY 4.0 licence immediately.

Everyone is permitted to use all or part of the original content in this article, provided that they adhere to all the terms of the licence https://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0

Although reasonable endeavours have been taken to obtain all necessary permissions from third parties to include their copyrighted content within this article, their full citation and copyright line may not be present in this Accepted Manuscript version. Before using any content from this article, please refer to the Version of Record on IOPscience once published for full citation and copyright details, as permissions may be required. All third party content is fully copyright protected and is not published on a gold open access basis under a CC BY licence, unless that is specifically stated in the figure caption in the Version of Record.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • View all journals
  • Explore content
  • About the journal
  • Publish with us
  • Sign up for alerts
  • Published: 22 February 2024

Fundamentals and applications in water treatment

Nature Water volume  2 ,  page 101 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

19 Accesses

1 Altmetric

Metrics details

For papers regarding water and wastewater treatment, we are interested in both conceptual advance and potential for practical use.

There should be some kind of limit to the number of times a journal writes about itself. It certainly may seem an overkill to publish an introspective Editorial just one issue after we reflected on what we achieved in our first year of existence 1 . However, it was precisely during the work of reflection in preparation for the January issue Editorial that we realized the need to dwell on the way we consider fundamental and applied research work — admittedly we also received some comments from our readership almost at the same time. Although such views could be applied to all of the topics we cover, they are easily exemplified by the areas of water and wastewater treatment, and for the sake of this Editorial we focus on those.

Already while planning the launch of Nature Water , it was clear to us that a journal on water and society should publish research that provides practical and sustainable solutions. We felt that it was particularly important to insist on this point because the tradition of journals in the Nature Portfolio has been for a long time to look for conceptual advance or mechanistic understanding — though the trend towards technology has changed in the last few years. In our view, if a manuscript demonstrates the potential real-world applicability of a concept developed previously, the potential impact could be enough, at least from an editorial perspective, to be considered for publication. Perhaps the best example of this line of reasoning is the paper by Song et al. that reported the demonstration of water capture in a very dry location with a device conceived previously 2 (Fig. 1 ). In terms of reviews, the Review Article by Dang et al. in this issue beautifully illustrates the concept of starting from the working principle of a technology to explore its real-life application even to an industrial level.

figure 1

Adapted from ref. 2 , Springer Nature Ltd.

It is undeniable that most of the papers we have published so far have a strong applied slant. However, we want to clarify that we are still interested in fundamental insight that would have relevance for water treatment down the line. In our pre-launch collection we included papers like the one by Song et al. 3 that explored the mechanisms of water permeability in artificial aquaporins. In a News & Views in June 2023 4 we highlighted a paper studying the fundamental aspects of water transport in reverse osmosis membranes 5 . Among the papers we published, a clear example is the paper by Hu et al. 6 , which explored the effect of lattice strain and element speciation on the chemical microenvironment of Fe 0 particles with a view to optimize the reduction properties of the material. Although Fe 0 nanomaterials are considered for environmental remediation, the specific study investigates the change of their chemical properties by introducing a chemistry-related approach, and from an editorial perspective the findings were interesting enough in themselves to be considered without a practical demonstration. Another example is the review by Mitch et al. 7 (Fig. 2 ). Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are clearly connected to water treatment. But the Review Article itself explores primarily the chemical properties of a special category of DBPs and the associated organic matter precursors.

figure 2

Reproduced from ref. 7 , Springer Nature Ltd.

To state it plainly, we would not consider research about the chemical or physical properties of water with no connection to water treatment. Those results are of course of value, but in our view are better suited in venues focussing on chemistry or physics. However, if there is a connection with water treatment, our criteria for consideration remains solely the perceived significance and potential impact of the results, whether they improve our fundamental understanding or show promise for applications.

Nat. Water 2 , 1 (2024).

Song, W., Zheng, Z., Alawadhi, A. H. & Yaghi, O. M. Nat. Water 1 , 626–634 (2023).

Google Scholar  

Song, W. et al. Nat. Nanotechnol. 15 , 73–79 (2020).

ADS   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Lueptow, R. M. Nat. Water 1 , 492–493 (2023).

Wang, L. et al. Sci. Adv. 9 , eadf8488 (2023).

CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Hu, X. et al. Nat. Water 2 , 84–92 (2024).

Mitch, W. A., Richardson, S. D., Zhang, X. & Gonsior, M. Nat. Water 1 , 336–347 (2023).

Download references

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Fundamentals and applications in water treatment. Nat Water 2 , 101 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-024-00211-y

Download citation

Published : 22 February 2024

Issue Date : February 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-024-00211-y

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

  • Explore articles by subject
  • Guide to authors
  • Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

review of literature on wastewater treatment

A review on the industrial wastewater with the efficient treatment techniques

  • Published: 06 April 2023
  • Volume 77 , pages 4131–4163, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

  • Anil Kumar 1 ,
  • Avinash Thakur 1 &
  • Parmjit Singh Panesar 2  

785 Accesses

7 Citations

Explore all metrics

Nowadays, a debate related to water pollution is going on due to its growing noticeable effects on the ecosystem. The treatment of industrial wastewater has become a great environmental concern because of the speedy progress of economy and industries. Water pollution due to the presence of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Cd, Hg, etc.) has a significant public health hazard and also exhibits various types of toxicological appearances. Several remediation technologies have been adapted/investigated revitalizing polluted wastewater without impeding the environment. The suitability and applicability of various separation techniques (such as chemical precipitation, adsorption, electrochemical treatment, and liquid membrane) were discussed in this study. The focus of this literature is mainly to elucidate about the treatment performance of various separation technologies and their toxic impacts on the environment and human health. Hence, this review article has abridged and elucidated the most topical literature studies and suggestions about the heavy metal ions from the aqueous toxins and their treatment techniques. Conclusively, a promising technique called emulsion liquid membrane (ELM) along with its recent advances has been proposed as an efficient treatment technique for wastewater remediation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

review of literature on wastewater treatment

Aboulhassan MA, Harif S, Souabi S, Yaacoubi A (2021) Efficient and sustainable treatment of industrial wastewater using a tannin-based polymer. Int J Sustain Eng 14:1943–1949. https://doi.org/10.1080/19397038.2021.1972181

Article   Google Scholar  

Ahmad F, Lau KK, Lock SSM, Rafiq S, Khan AU, Lee M (2015b) Hollow fiber membrane model for gas separation: process simulation, experimental validation and module characteristics study. J Ind Eng Chem 21:1246–1257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2014.05.041

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Ahmad AL, Buddin MMHS, Ooi BS, Kusumastuti A (2017) Utilization of environmentally benign emulsion liquid membrane (ELM) for cadmium extraction from aqueous solution. J Water Process Eng 15:26–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2016.05.010

Ahmaruzzaman M (2009) Role of fly ash in the removal of organic pollutants from wastewater. Ener Fuels 23:1494–1511. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef8002697

Ahmed MJK, Ahmaruzzaman M (2016) A review on potential usage of industrial waste materials for binding heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions. J Water Process Eng 10:39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2016.01.014

Alexandrova L, Grigorov L (1996) Precipitate and adsorbing colloid flotation of dissolved copper, lead and zinc ions. Int J Miner Process 48:111–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-7516(96)00018-X

Ali H, Khan E, Ilahi I (2019) Environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology of hazardous heavy metals: environmental persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation. J Chem 2019:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6730305

Alliod O, Messager L, Fessi H, Dupin D, Charcosset C (2019) Influence of viscosity for oil-in-water and water-in-oil nano-emulsions production by SPG premix membrane emulsification. Chem Eng Res Des 142:87–99

Anarakdim K, Matos M, Cambiella A, Gutierrez G S-K (2020) Effect of temperature on the heat treatment to recover green solvent from emulsion liquid membranes used in the extraction of Cr (VI). Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 158:108178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2020.108178

Anderson A, Anbarasu A, Pasupuleti RR, Manigandan S, Kumar TRP, Kumar JA (2022) Treatment of heavy metals containing wastewater using biodegradable adsorbents: a review of mechanism and future trends. Chemosphere 295:133724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133724

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Arola K, Ward A, Manttari M, Kallioinen M, Batstone D (2019) Transport of pharmaceuticals during electrodialysis treatment of wastewater. Water Res 161:496–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.031

Arruti A, Fernández-Olmo I, Irabien A (2010) Evaluation of the contribution of localsources to trace metals levels in urban PM2.5 and PM10 in the Cantabria region (NorthernSpain). J Environ Monit 12:1451–1458. https://doi.org/10.1039/b926740a

Asadian H, Ahmadi A (2020) The extraction of gallium from chloride solutions by emulsion liquid membrane: optimization through response surface methodology. Miner Eng 148:106207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2020.106207

Assche F, Clijsters H (1990) Effects of metals on enzyme activity in plants. Plant Cell Environ 24:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.1990.tb01304.x

Azizullah A, Khattak MNK, Richter P, Hader DP (2011) Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on public health-a review. Environ Int 37:479–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2010.10.007

Babel S, Kurniawan TA (2003) Low-cost adsorbents for heavy metals uptake from contaminated water: a review. J Hazard Mater 97:219–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3894(02)00263-7

Balasubramanian A, Venkatesan S (2014) Optimization of removal of phenol from aqueous solution by ionic liquid-based emulsion liquid membrane using response surface methodology. Clean: Soil, Air, Water 42:64–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.201200168

Bansod B, Kumar T, Thakur R, Rana S, Singh I (2017) A review on various electrochemical techniques for heavy metal ions detection with different sensing platforms. Biosens Bioelectron 94:443–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2017.03.031

Barakat MA (2011) New trends in removing heavy metals from industrial wastewater. Arab J Chem 4:361–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2010.07.019

Benderrag A, Haddou B, Daaou M, Benkhedja H, Bounaceur B, Kameche M (2019) Experimental and modeling studies on Cd (II) ions extraction by emulsion liquid membrane using Triton X-100 as biodegradable surfactant. J Environ Chem Eng 7:103166

Berkessa YW, Lang QL, Yan BH, Kuang SP, Mao DB, Shu L, Zhang Y (2019) Anion exchange membrane organic fouling and mitigation in salt valorization process from high salinity textile wastewater by bipolar membrane electrodialysis. Desalination 465:94–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.04.027

Besha AT, Tsehaye MT, Aili D, Zhang W, Tufa RA (2020) Design of monovalent ion selective membranes for reducing the impacts of multivalent ions in reverse electrodialysis. Membranes 10:7. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10010007

Bilal M, Shah JA, Ashfaq T, Gardazi SMH, Tahir AA, Pervez A, Haroon H, Mahmood Q (2013) Waste biomass adsorbents for copper removal from industrial wastewater-a review. J Hazard Mater 263:322–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.07.071

Bjorkegren S, Karimi RF, Martinelli A, Jayakumar NS, Hashim MA (2015) A new emulsion liquid membrane based on a palm oil for the extraction of heavy metals. Membranes 5(168–179):10. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes5020168

Cao X, Huang X, Liang P, Xiao K, Zhou Y, Zhang X, Logan BE (2009) A new method for water desalination using microbial desalination cells. Environ Sci Technol 43(7148–7152):10. https://doi.org/10.1021/es901950j

Carolin CF, Kumar PS, Saravanan A, Joshiba GJ, Naushad MU (2017) Efficient techniques for the removal of toxic heavy metals from aquatic environment: a review. J Environ Chem Eng 5:2782–2799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2017.05.029

Chai WS, Cheun JY, Kumar PS, Mubashir M, Majeed Z, Banat F, Ho SH, Show PL (2021) A review on conventional and novel materials towards heavy metal adsorption in wastewater treatment application. J Clean Prod 296:126589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126589

Chandwadkar P, Mishra HS, Achary C (2018) Uranium biomineralization induced by a metal tolerant Serratia strain under acid, alkaline and irradiated conditions. Metallomics 10:1078–1088. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8mt00061a

Chang SH (2018) A comparative study of batch and continuous bulk liquid membranes in the removal and recovery of cu (ii) ions from wastewater. Water Air Soil Pollut 229:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-017-3659-z

Chen GQ, Eschbach FII, Weeks M, Gras SL, Kentish SE (2016) Removal of lactic acid from acid whey using electrodialysis. Sep Purif Technol 158:230–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.12.016

Chen L, Feng S, Zhao D, Chen S, Li F, Chen C (2017) Efficient sorption and reduction of U (VI) on zero-valent iron polyaniline- graphene aerogel ternary composite. J Colloid Interf Sci 490:197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2016.11.050

Chen BL, Jiang CX, Wang YM, Fu RQ, Liu ZM, Xu TW (2018a) Selectrodialysis with bipolar membrane for the reclamation of concentrated brine from RO plant. Desalination 442:8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.04.031

Chen H, Zhao Y, Yang Q, Yan Q (2018b) Preparation of poly-ammonium/sodium dithiocarbamate for the efficient removal of chelated heavy metal ions from aqueous environments. J Environ Chem Eng 6:2344–2354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2018.03.029

Chen Y, Bai X, Ye Z (2020) Recent progress in heavy metal ion decontamination based on metal-organic frameworks. Nanomaterials 10:1481. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10081481

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Chu Z, Fan X, Wang W, Huang WC (2019) Quantitative evaluation of heavy metals’ pollution hazards and estimation of heavy metals’ environmental costs in leachate during food waste composting. Waste Manag 84:119–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.11.031

Coman V, Robotin B, Ilea P (2013) Nickel recovery/removal from industrial wastes: a review. Resour Conserv Recycl 73:229–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.01.019

Daraei P, Zereshki S, Shokri A (2019) Application of nontoxic green emulsion liquid membrane prepared by sunflower oil for water decolorization: process optimization by response surface methodology. J Ind Eng Chem 77:215–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2019.04.039

Demirbas A (2008) Heavy metal adsorption onto agro-based waste materials: a review. J Hazard Mater 157:220–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.01.024

Dermont G, Bergeron M, Mercier G, Richer-Lafleche M (2008) Metal-contaminated soils: remediation practices and treatment technologies. Pract Period Hazard Tox Radioact Wast Manag 12:188–209. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-025X(2008)12:3(188)

Duruibe J, Ogwuegbu M, Egwurugwu JN (2007) Heavy metal pollution and human biotoxic effects. Int J Phys Sci 2:112–118

Google Scholar  

Elmakki T, Zavahir S, Gulied M, Qiblawey H, Hammadi B, Khraisheh M, Shon HK, Park H, Han DS (2023) Potential application of hybrid reverse electrodialysis (RED)-forward osmosis (FO) system to fertilizer-producing industrial plant for efficient water reuse. Desalination 550:116374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.116374

El-Sharkawy RM, Allam EA, Mahmoud ME (2020) Functionalization of CeO 2 -SiO 2 -(CH 2 ) 3 -Cl nanoparticles with sodium alginate for enhanced and effective ions removal by microwave irradiation and adsorption technique. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manage 14:100367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2020.100367

Ene A, Bosneaga A, Georgescu L (2010) Determination of heavy metals in soils using XRF technique. Rom J Physiol 55:815–820

CAS   Google Scholar  

Ewecharoen A, Thiravetyan P, Wendel E, Bertagnolli H (2009) Nickel adsorption by sodium polyacrylate-grafted activated carbon. J Hazard Mater 171(1–3):335–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.06.008

Fang Z, Liu X, Zhang M, Sun J, Mao S, Lu J, Rohani S (2016) A neural network approach to simulating the dynamic extraction process of L-phenylalanine from sodium chloride aqueous by emulsion liquid membrane. Chem Eng Res Des 105:188–199

Farooq U, Kozinski JA, Khan MA, Athar M (2010) Biosorption of heavy metal ions using wheat based biosorbents- A review of the recent literature. Biores Technol 101:5043–5053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.02.030

Feng Y, Yang L, Liu J, Logan BE (2016) Electrochemical technologies for wastewater treatment and resource reclamation. Environ Sci Water Res Technol 2:800–831

Ferreira LC, Ferreira LC, Cardoso VL, Filho UC (2019) Mn (II) removal from water using emulsion liquid membrane composed of chelating agents and biosurfactant produced in loco. J Water Process Eng 29:100792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2019.100792

Finnegan PM, Chen W (2012) Arsenic toxicity: the effects on plant metabolism. Frontiers Physiol 3(1–18):10. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15010059

Garavand F, Razavi SH, Cacciotti I (2018) Synchronized extraction and purification of L-lactic acid from fermentation broth by emulsion liquid membrane (ELM) technique. J Dispers Sci Technol 39:1291–1299. https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2017.1396225

Garcia Segura S, Lanzarini-Lopes M, Hristovski K, Westerhoff P (2018) Electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate: fundamentals to full-scale water treatment applications. Appl Catal B Environ 236:546–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2018.05.041

Ghazanfari MR, Kashefi M, Shams SF, Jaafari MR (2016) Perspective of Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles role in biomedical applications. Biochem Res Int 20:1–36. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7840161

Gherasim CV, Křivčík J, Mikulasek P (2014) Investigation of batch electrodialysis process for removal of lead ions from aqueous solutions. Chem Eng J 256:324–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2014.06.094

Ghosh P, Samanta AN, Ray S (2011) Reduction of COD and removal of Zn 2+ from rayon industry wastewater by combined electro-Fenton treatment and chemical precipitation. Desalination 266:213–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.08.029

Goncalves AL, Pires JCM, Simoes M (2017) A review on the use of microalgal consortia for wastewater treatment. Algal Res 24:403–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.11.008

Guieysse B, Norvill ZN (2014) Sequential chemical-biological processes for the treatment of industrial wastewaters: review of recent progresses and critical assessment. J Hazard Mater 267:142–152

Gunatilake SK (2015) Methods of removing heavy metals from industrial wastewater. J Multidiscipl Eng Sci Stud 1:12–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsus.2022.765592

Hader DP, Banaszak AT, Villafañe VE, Narvarte MA, González RA, Helbling EW (2020) Anthropogenic pollution of aquatic ecosystems: emerging problems with global implications. Sci Total Environ 713:136586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136586

Hallaji H, Keshtkar AR, Moosavian MA (2015) A novel electrospun PVA/ZnO nanofiber adsorbent for U(VI), Cu(II) and Ni(II) removal from aqueous solution. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 46:109–118

Hansen É, Rodrigues MAS, de Aragao ME, Aquim PM (2018) Water and wastewater minimization in a petrochemical industry through mathematical programming. J Clean Prod 172:1814–1822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.005

Harruddin N, Othman N, Ee Sin AL, Sulaiman RNR (2015) Selective removal and recovery of Black B reactive dye from simulated textile wastewater using the supported liquid membrane process. Env Technol 36:271–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2014.943301

Harvey PJ, Handley HK, Taylor MP (2015) Identification of the sources of metal (lead) contamination in drinking waters in north-eastern Tasmania using lead isotopic compositions. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22(12276–12288):10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4349-2

Hasanpour M, Hatami M (2020) Application of three-dimensional porous aerogels as adsorbent for removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater: a review study. Adv Colloid Interf Sci 284:102247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2020.102247

Hasanzadeh R, Moghadam PN, Bahri-Laleh N, Sillanpaa M (2017) Effective removal of toxic metal ions from aqueous solutions: 2-Bifunctional magnetic nanocomposite base on novel reactive PGMAMAn copolymer Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles. J Colloid Inter Sci 490:727–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2016.11.098

Hashim MA, Mukhopadhyay S, Sahu JN, Sengupta B (2011) Remediation technologies for heavy metal contaminated groundwater. J Environ Manage 92:2355–2388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.06.009

He K, Tang J, Weng H, Chen G, Wu Z, Lin M (2018) Efficient extraction of precious metal ions by a membrane emulsification circulation extractor. Sep Purif Technol 213:93–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.12.024

Hernnádez-Cocoletzi H, Salinas RA, Águila-Almanza E, Rubio-Rosas E, Chai WS, Chew KW, Mariscal-Hernández C, Show PL (2020) Natural hydroxyapatite from fishbone waste for the rapid adsorption of heavy metals of aqueous effluent. Environ Technol Innov 20:101109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.101109

Honda S, Shin-mura K, Sasaki K (2018) Lithium isotope enrichment by electrochemical pumping using solid lithium electrolytes. J Cera Soci Jap 126:331–335. https://doi.org/10.2109/jcersj2.17229

Huda M, Ahmed S, Mohammed A (2019) Extraction of lead ions from aqueous solution by co-stabilization mechanisms of magnetic Fe 2 O 3 particles and non-ionic surfactants in emulsion liquid membrane. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 568:301–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2019.02.018

Ihsanullah A, Al-Amer AM, Laoui T, Al-Marri MJ, Nasser MS, Khraisheh M, Atieh MA (2016) Heavy metal removal from aqueous solution by advanced carbon nanotubes: critical review of adsorption applications. Sep Purif Technol 157:141–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.11.039

Jadhav SV, Gadipelly CR, Marathe KV, Rathod VK (2014) Treatment of fluoride concentrates from membrane unit using salt solutions. J Water Process Eng 2:31–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2014.04.004

Jaishankar M, Mathew BB, Shah MS, Gowda KRS (2014a) Biosorption of few heavy metal ions using agricultural wastes. J Environ Poll Human Health 2:1–6

Jaishankar M, Tseten T, Anbalagan N, Mathew BB, Beeregowda KN (2014b) Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. Interdiscip Toxicol 7(60–72):10. https://doi.org/10.2478/intox-2014-0009

Jen TY, Feng YC, Hsuan CM, Ping DY (2017) Efficient removal/recovery of Pb onto environmentally friendly fabricated copper ferrite nanoparticles. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 71:195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2016.12.006

Jiang L, Liu X, Yin H, Liang Y, Liu H, Miao B, Peng Q, Meng D, Wang S, Yang J, Guo Z (2021) The utilization of biomineralization technique based on microbial induced phosphate precipitation in remediation of potentially toxic ions contaminated soil: a mini review. Ecotoxi Environ Saf 191:110009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.110009

Jumina PY, Setiawan HRS, Mutmainah KYS, Keisuke Ohto K (2020) Simultaneous removal of lead (II), chromium (III), and copper (II) heavy metal ions through an adsorption process using C-phenylcalix [4] pyrogallolarene material. J Environ Chem Eng 8:4103971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.103971

Jusoh N, Noah NFM, Othman N (2019) Extraction and recovery optimization of succinic acid using green emulsion liquid membrane containing palm oil as the diluent. Environ Prog Sustain Ener 38:13065. https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.13065

Kanwar VS, Sharma A, Srivastav AL, Rani L (2020) Phytoremediation of toxic metals present in soil and water environment: a critical review. Environ Sci Poll Res 27:44835–44860. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10713-3

Kassem AT, Masry BA, Zeid MM, Noweir HG, Saad EA, Daoud JA (2017) Extraction of palladium from nitrate medium by emulsion liquid membrane containing CYANEX 471X as carrier. Sol Extr Ion Exch 35:145–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/07366299.2017.1279910

Khadivi M, Javanbakht V (2020) Emulsion ionic liquid membrane using edible paraffin oil for lead removal from aqueous solutions. J Mol Liq 319:114137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2020.114137

Khanam R, Kumar A, Nayak AK, Shahid M, Tripathi R, Vijayakumar S, Chatterjee D (2020) Metal (loid) (As, Hg, Se, Pb and Cd) in paddy soil: bioavailability and potential risk to human health. Sci Total Environ 134330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134330

Khlifi R, Hamza-Chaffai A (2010) Head and neck cancer due to heavy metal exposure via tobacco smoking and professional exposure: a review. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 248:71–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2010.08.003

Kim Y, Logan BE (2013) Microbial desalination cells for energy production and desalination. Desalination 308:122–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.07.022

Kim S, Park CM, Jang M, Son A, Her N, Yu M, Snyder S, Kim DH, Yoon Y (2018) Aqueous removal of inorganic and organic contaminants by graphene-based nanoadsorbents: a review. Chemos 212:1104–1124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.09.033

Kobya M, Akyol A, Demirbas E, Oncel MS (2014) Removal of arsenic from drinking water by batch and continuous electrocoagulation processes using hybrid Al–Fe plate electrodes. Environ Prog Sustain Energy 33:131–140. https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.11765

Kumar A, Akash Deep A, Kim KH, Brown RJC (2015) Coordination polymers: Opportunities and challenges for monitoring volatile organic compounds. Prog Poly Sci 45:102–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2015.01.002

Kumar P, Pournara A, Kim KH, Bansal V, Rapti S, Manos MJ (2017) Metal-organic frameworks: challenges and opportunities for ion-exchange/sorption applications. Prog Mater Sci 86:25–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2017.01.002

Kumar A, Thakur A, Panesar PS (2018a) Stability analysis of environmentally benign green emulsion liquid membrane. J Disper Sci Technol 39:1510–1517. https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2017

Kumar A, Thakur A, Panesar PS (2018b) Statistical optimization of lactic acid extraction using green emulsion ionic liquid membrane (GEILM). J Environ Chem Eng 6:1855–1864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2018.01

Kumar A, Thakur A, Panesar PS (2018c) Lactic acid extraction using environmentally benign green emulsion ionic liquid membrane. J Clean Prod 181:574–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.263

Kumar A, Thakur A, Panesar PS (2019) Recent sustainable developments in emulsion liquid membrane process technology. J Clean Prod 240:118250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118250

Kumar A, Thakur A, Panesar PS (2019a) A review on emulsion liquid membrane (ELM) for the treatment of various industrial effluent streams. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 18:153–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-019-09492-2

Kumar A, Thakur A, Panesar PS (2019b) Lactic acid and its separation and purification techniques: a review. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 18:823–853. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-019-09517-w

Kumar A, Thakur A, Panesar PS (2019c) Extraction of hexavalent chromium by environmentally benign green emulsion liquid membrane using tridodecyamine as an extractant. J Ind Eng Chem 70:394–401

Kumar A, Thakur A, Panesar PS (2019d) A comparative study on experimental and response surface optimization of lactic acid synergistic extraction using green emulsion liquid membrane. Sep Purif Technol 211:54–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.09.048

Kumar JA, Krithiga T, Manigandan S, Sathish S, Renita AA, Prakash P, Prasad BSN, Kumar TRP, Rajasimman M, Hosseini-Bandegharaei A, Prabu D, Crispin S (2021) A focus to green synthesis of metal/metal-based oxide nanoparticles: various mechanisms and applications towards ecological approach. J Clean Prod 324:129198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129198

Kumar A, Thakur A, Panesar PS (2021) Role of operating process parameters on stability performance of green emulsion liquid membrane based on rice bran oil. Theor Found Chem Eng 55:534–544. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0040579521030118

Kurniawan TA, Chan GYS, Lo WH, Babel S (2006) Physico-chemical treatment techniques for wastewater laden with heavy metals. Chem Eng J 118:83–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2006.01.015

Lalia BS, Hashaikeh R (2021) Electrochemical precipitation to reduce waste brine salinity. Desalination 498:114796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114796

Liang Y, Yi X, Dang Z, Wang Q, Luo H, Tang J (2017) Heavy metal contamination and health risk assessment in the vicinity of a tailing pond in Guangdong China. Int J Environ Res Pub Heal 14:1557. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14121557

Liu Y, Yan J, Yuan D, Li Q, Wu X (2013) The study of lead removal from aqueous solution using an electrochemical method with a stainless-steel net electrode coated with single wall carbon nanotubes. Chem Eng J 218:81–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.12.020

Liu G, Mei H, Tan X, Zhang H, Liu H, Fang M, Wang X (2018) Enhancement of Rb + and Cs + removal in 3D carbon aero gel supported Na2Ti3O7. J Mol Liq 262:476–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2018.04.117

Liu T, Li Z, Wang J, Chen J, Guan M, Qiu H (2021a) Solid membranes for chiral separation: a review. Chem Eng J 410:128247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.128247

Liu X, Yang S, Gu P, Liu S, Yang G (2021b) Adsorption and removal of metal ions by smectites nanoparticles: mechanistic aspects, and impacts of charge location and edge structure. Appl Clay Sci 201:105957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2020.105957

Liu Y, Ali A, Su JF, Li K, Hu RZ, Zhao Wang Z (2023) Microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation: influencing factors, nucleation pathways, and application in waste water remediation. Sci Total Environ 860:160439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160439

Ma H, Kokkilic OK, Waters KE (2017) The use of the emulsion liquid membrane technique to remove copper ions from aqueous systems using statistical experimental design. Miner Eng 107:88–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2016.10.014

Maslova M, Mudruk N, Ivanets A, Shashkova I, Kitikova N (2021) The effect of pH on removal of toxic metal ions from aqueous solutions using composite sorbent based on Ti–Ca–Mg phosphates. J Water Process Eng 40:101830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101830

Masry BA, Aly M, Daou JA (2021) Selective permeation of Ag ions from pyrosulfite solution through nano-emulsion liquid membrane (NELM) containing CYANEX 925 as carrier. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Aspec 610:125713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2020.125713

Medina BY, Torem ML, de Mesquita LMS (2005) On the kinetics of precipitate flotation of Cr III using sodium dodecylsulfate and ethanol. Miner Eng 18:225–231

Mehta J, Bhardwaj SK, Bhardwaj N, Paul AK, Kumar P, Kim KH, Deep (2016) A progress in the biosensing techniques for trace-level heavy metals. Biotechnol Adv 34:47–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.12.001

Mickova I (2015) Advanced electrochemical technologies in wastewater treatment part I: electrocoagulation. Am Sci Res J Eng Technol Sci 14:233–257

Mitko K, Noszczyk A, Dydo P, Turek M (2021) Electrodialysis of coal mine water. Water Resou Ind 25:100143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wri.2021.100143

Mohammad AW, Teow YH, Ang WL, Chung YT, Oatley-Radcliffe DL, Hilal N (2015) Nanofiltration membranes review: recent advances and future prospects. Desalination 356:226–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.10.043

Mohammed AA, Atiya MA, Hussein MA (2020) Studies on membrane stability and extraction of ciprofloxacin from aqueous solution using pickering emulsion liquid membrane stabilized by magnetic nano-Fe 2 O 3 . Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 585:124044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2019.124044

Morcos GS, Ibrahim AA, El-Sayed MMH, El-Shall MS (2021) High performance functionalized UiO metal organic frameworks for the efficient and selective adsorption of Pb (II) ions in concentrated multi-ion systems. J Environ Chem Eng 9:105191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.105191

Morosini DF, Baltar CAM, Coelho ACD (2014) Iron removal by precipitate flotation. REM Rev Esc Min 67:203–207. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0370-44672014000200012

Mukhopadhyay S, Debgupta J, Singh C, Sarkar R, Basu O, Das SK (2019) Designing UiO-66-based superprotonic conductor with the highest metal-organic frame work based proton conductivity. ACS Appl Mater Interf 11:13423–13432. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b01121

Musilova J, Arvay J, Vollmannova A, Toth T, Tomas J (2016) Environmental contamination by heavy metals in region with previous mining activity. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 97:569–575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-016-1907-3

Nagajyoti PC, Lee KD, Sreekanth TVM (2010) Heavy metals, occurrence and toxicity for plants: a review. Environ Chem Lett 8:199–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-010-0297-8

Naoh FNM, Jusoh N, Othman N, Sulaiman RNR, Parker NAMK (2018) Development of stable green emulsion liquid membrane process via liquid-liquid extraction to treat real chromium from rinse electroplating wastewater. J Ind Eng Chem 66:231–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2018.05.034

Naumczyk JH, Kucharska MA (2017) Electrochemical treatment of tannery wastewater-raw, coagulated, and pre-treated by AOPs. J Environ Sci Health Part A 52:649–664. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2017.1297140

Nazif A, Karkhanechi H, Saljoughi E, Mousavi SM, Matsuyama H (2022) Recent progress in membrane development, affecting parameters, and applications of reverse electrodialysis: a review. J Water Process Eng 47:102706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2022.102706

Netpae T, Phalaraksh C (2009) Water quality and heavy metal monitoring in water, sediments, and tissues of Corbicula sp . from bung Boraphet reservoir. Thail Chiang Mai J Sci 36:395–402

Nguyen TAH, Ngo HH, Guo WS, Zhang J, Liang S, Yue QY, Li Q, Nguyen TV (2013) Applicability of agricultural waste and by-products for adsorptive removal of heavy metals from wastewater. Biores Technol 148:574–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.08.124

Nippatla N, Philip L (2020) Electrochemical process employing scrap metal waste as electrodes for dye removal. J Environ Manag 273:111039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111039

Ojedokun AT, Bello OS (2016) Sequestering heavy metals from wastewater using cow dung. Water Resour Ind 13:7–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wri.2016.02.002

Oldham K (2008) A gouy-chapman-stern model of the double layer at a metal/ionic liquid interface. J Electroanalyt Chem 613:131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2007.10.017

Ooi ZY, Othman N, Choo CL (2016) The role of internal droplet size on emulsion stability and the extraction performance of kraft lignin removal from pulping wastewater in emulsion liquid membrane process. J Dispers Sci Technol 37:544–554. https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2015.1050728

Othman N, Djamal R, Mili N, Zailani SN (2011) Removal of red 3BS dyes from wastewater using emulsion liquid membrane process. J Appl Sci 11(1406–1410):10. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2011.1406.1410

Othman N, Naoh NFM, Poh WK, Yi OZ (2016) High performance of chromium recovery from aqueous waste solution using mixture of palm-oil in emulsion liquid membrane. Procedia Eng 148:765–773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.611

Othman N, Noah NFM, Shu LY, Ooi ZY, Jusoh N, Idroas M, Goto M (2017) Easy removing of phenol from wastewater using vegetable oil-based organic solvent in emulsion liquid membrane process. Chin J Chem Eng 25:45–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjche.2016.06.002

Othman N, Sulaiman RNR, Abdel-Rahman HA, Noah NFM, Jusoh N, Idroas M (2018) Simultaneous extraction and enrichment of reactive dye using green emulsion liquid membrane system. Environ Technol 17:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2018.1424258

Palanisamy S, Velusamy V, Chen SW, Yang TCK, Balu S, Banks CE (2019) Enhanced reversible redox activity of hemin on cellulose microfiber integrated reduced graphene oxide for H 2 O 2 biosensor applications. Carbohydr Polym 204:152–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.10.001

Parbat SA, Bhanvase BA, Sonawane SH (2020) Investigation on liquid emulsion membrane (LEM) prepared with hydrodynamic cavitation process for cobalt (II) extraction from wastewater. Sep Purif Technol 237:116385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.116385

Patil DS, Chavan SM, Oubagaranadin JUK (2016) A review of technologies for manganese removal from wastewaters. J Environ Chem Eng 4:468–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2015.11.028

Pattan G, Kaul G (2014) Health hazards associated with nanomaterials. Toxicol Ind Health 30:499–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748233712459900

Pattnaik A, Sahu JN, Poonia AK, Ghosh P (2023) Current perspective of nano-engineered metal oxide based photocatalysts in advanced oxidation processes for degradation of organic pollutants in wastewater. Chem Eng Res Des 190:667–686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.01.014

Peligro FR, Pavlovic I, Rojas R, Barriga C (2016) Removal of heavy metals from simulated wastewater by in situ formation of layered double hydroxides. Chem Eng J 306:1035–1040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.08.054

Perumal M, Soundarajan B, Vengara NT (2018) Extraction of Cr (VI) by pickering emulsion liquid membrane using amphiphilic silica nanowires (ASNWs) as a surfactant. J Disper Sci Technol 40:1046–1055. https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2018.1496829

Peters RW, Ku Y (1998) The effect of tartrate, a weak complexing agent, on the removal of heavy metals by sulfide and hydroxide precipitation. Part Sci Technol 6:421–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/02726358808906515

Piervandi Z, Darban AK, Mousavi SM, Abdollahy M, Asadollahfardi G, Dinelli E, Webster RD, Funari V (2021) Electrochemical and reactions mechanisms in the minimization of toxic elements transfer from mine-wastes into the ecosystem. Electrochim Acta 388:138610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2021.138610

Popescu IV, Stihi C, Cimpoca GV, Dima G, Vlaicu G, Gheboianu A, Bancuta I, Ghisa V, State G (2009) Environmental samples analysis by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICPAES). Rom J Phys 54(7–8):731–741

Prakash R, Majumder SK, Singh A (2018) Flotation technique: its mechanisms and design parameters. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 127:249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2018.03.029

Pratiwi AI, Matsumoto M (2014) Separation of organic acids through liquid membranes containing ionic liquids. Ion Liq Sep Technol. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63257-9.00005-5

Qiao L, Li S, Li Y, Liu Y, Du K (2020) Fabrication of superporous cellulose beads via enhanced inner cross-linked linkages for high efficient adsorption of heavy metal ions. J Clean Prod 253:120017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120017

Qiu Y, Lv Y, Tang C, Liao J, Ruan H, Sotto A, Shen J (2021) Sustainable recovery of high-saline papermaking wastewater: optimized separation for salts and organics via membrane-hybrid process. Desalination 507:114938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2021.114938

Radjenovic J, Sedlak DL (2015) Challenges and opportunities for electrochemical processes as next-generation technologies for the treatment of contaminated water. Environ Sci Technol 49:11292–11302. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b02414

Rahman HA, Jusoh N, Othman N, Rosly MB, Sulaiman RNR, Noah NFM (2019) Green formulation for synthetic dye extraction using synergistic mixture of acid-base extractant. Sep Purif Technol 209:293–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.07.053

Rajendran S, Priya AK, Kumar PS, Hoang TKA, Sekar K, Chong KY, Khoo KS, Ng HS, Show PL (2022) A critical and recent developments on adsorption technique for removal of heavy metals from wastewater-a review. Chemosphere 303:135146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135146

Ramirez-Moreno M, Esteve-Nunez A, Ortiz JM (2021) Desalination of brackish water using a microbial desalination cell: analysis of the electrochemical behaviour. Electrochim Acta 388:138570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2021.138570

Rashed MN (2019) Adsorption technique for the removal of organic pollutants from water and wastewater. Im Tech Open. https://doi.org/10.5772/54048

Raskin I, Kumar PBAN, Dushenkov S, Salt DE (1994) Bioconcentration of heavy metals by plants. Curr Opin Biotech 5:285–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/0958-1669(94)90030-2

Rosly MB, Jusoh N, Othman N, Rahman HA, Noah NFM, Sulaiman RNR (2019) Effect and optimization parameters of phenol removal in emulsion liquid membrane process via fractional-factorial design. Chem Eng Res Des 145:268–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2019.03.007

Rosly MB, Jusoh N, Othman N, Rahman HA, Noah NFM, Sulaiman RNR (2020) Synergism of Aliquat336-D2EHPA as carrier on the selectivity of organic compound dyes extraction via emulsion liquid membrane process. Sep Purif Technol 239:116527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116527

Rostamnezhad N, Kahforoushan D, Sahraei E, Ghanbarian S, Shabani M (2015) A method for the removal of Cu (II) from aqueous solutions by sulfide precipitation employing heavy oil fly ash. Desalin Water Treat 57:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2015.1087883

Rout DR, Jena HM, Baigenzhenov O, Hosseini-Bandegharaei A (2023) Graphene-based materials for effective adsorption of organic and inorganic pollutants: a critical and comprehensive review. Sci Total Environ 863:160871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160871

Ru J, Wang X, Wang F, Cui X, Du X, Lu X (2021) UiO series of metal-organic frameworks composites as advanced sorbents for the removal of heavy metal ions: synthesis, applications and adsorption mechanism. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 208:111577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111577

Ruihua L, Lin Z, Tao T, Bo L (2011) Phosphorus removal performance of acid mine drainage from wastewater. J Hazard Mater 190:669–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.03.097

Sadeghi MH, Tofighy MA, Mohammadi T (2020) One-dimensional graphene for efficient aqueous heavy metal adsorption: rapid removal of arsenic and mercury ions by graphene oxide nanoribbons (GONRs). Chemosphere 253:126647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126647

Sahu O (2017) Treatment of sugar processing industry effluent up to remittance limits: suitability of hybrid electrode for electrochemical reactor. Methods X (orlando) 4:172–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2017.05.001

Salman M, Shakir M, Yaseen M (2022) Recent developments in membrane filtration for wastewater treatment. In: Karchiyappan T, Karri RR, Dehghani MH (eds) Industrial wastewater treatment water science and technology library. Springer, Cham

Samuel MS, Shah SS, Bhattacharya J, Subramaniam K, Pradeep Singh ND (2018) Adsorption of Pb (II) from aqueous solution using a magnetic chitosan/graphene oxide composite and its toxicity studies. Int J Biol Macromol 115:1142–1150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.04.185

Sasaki K, Hiraka R, Takahashi H, Shin-mur K (2021) Energy balance of lithium recovery by electrodialysis using La0.57Li0.29TiO3 electrolyte. Fus Eng Des 170:112500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2021.112500

Sedighi M, Usefi MMB, Ismail AF, Ghasemi M (2023) Environmental sustainability and ions removal through electrodialysis desalination: operating conditions and process parameters. Desalination 549:116319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116319

Shahraki RS, Benally C, El-Din MG, Park J (2021) High efficiency removal of heavy metals using tire-derived activated carbon vs commercial activated carbon: Insights into the adsorption mechanisms. Chemosphere 264:128455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128455

Shi J, Su JF, Ali A, Li K, Hu RZ, Xu L, Yan H (2022a) Iron ore waste combined with lysozyme-producing bacteria to promote sludge reduction: Performance and mechanism. J Environ Chem Eng 10(6):108862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.108862

Shi X, Cheng C, Peng F, Hou W, Lin X, Wang X (2022b) Adsorption properties of graphene materials for pesticides: structure effect panel. J Mol Liq 364:119967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2022.119967

Shokouhfar N, Aboutorabi L, Morsali A (2018) Improving the capability of UiO-66 for Cr(vi) adsorption from aqueous solutions by introducing isonicotinate Noxide as the functional group. Dalton Trans 47:14549–14555. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8DT03196G

Shokri A, Daraei P, Zereshki S (2020) Water decolorization using waste cooking oil: an optimized green emulsion liquid membrane by RSM. J Water Process Eng 33:101021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2019.101021

Shome S, Venkatesan D, Kumar JA (2022) Role of water/wastewater/industrial treatment plants sludge in pollutant removal. Springer, Singapore

Book   Google Scholar  

Song Z, Chen X, Gong X, Gao X, Dai Q, Nguyen TT, Guo M (2020) Luminescent carbon quantum dots/nanofibrillated cellulose composite aerogel for monitoring adsorption of heavy metal ions in water. Opt Mater 100:109642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2019.109642

Song X, Cao Y, Bu X, Luo X (2021) Porous vaterite and cubic calcite aggregated calcium carbonate obtained from steamed ammonia liquid waste for Cu 2+ heavy metal ions removal by adsorption process. Appl Surf Sci 536:147958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.147958

Sujatha S, Rajasimman M (2021) Development of a green emulsion liquid membrane using waste cooking oil as diluent for the extraction of arsenic from aqueous solution-screening, optimization, kinetics and thermodynamics studies. J Water Process Eng 41:102055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102055

Sujatha S, Rajamohan N, Anbazhagan S, Vanithasri M, Rajasimman M (2021) Extraction of nickel using a green emulsion liquid membrane-process intensification, parameter optimization and artificial neural network modeling. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 165:108444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2021.108444

Sulaiman RNR, Othman N (2017) Removal and recovery of chromium (VI) ion via tri-n-octyl methylammonium chloride-kerosene polypropylene supported liquid membrane. Malays J Anal Sci 21(2):416–425. https://doi.org/10.17576/mjas-2017-2102-17

Surucu A, Eyupoglu V, Tutkun O (2012) Selective separation of cobalt and nickel by flat sheet supported liquid membrane using Alamine 300 as carrier. J Ind Eng Chem 18:629–634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2011.11.019

Tan XL, Fan QH, Wang XK, Grambow B (2009) Eu (III) sorption to TiO2 (anatase and rutile): Batch, XPS, and EXAFS study. Environ Sci Technol 43:3115–3121. https://doi.org/10.1021/es803431c

Tan S, Lora FB, Hallett JP, Kelsall GH (2021) Evaluation of N, N, N -dimethylbutyl ammonium methane sulfonate ionic liquid for electrochemical recovery of lead from lead-acid batteries. Electrochim Acta 376:137893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tet.2006.01.015

Tanong K, Tran LH, Mercier G, Blais JF (2017) Recovery of Zn (II), Mn (II) Cd (II) and Ni (II) from the unsorted spent batteries using solvent extraction, electrodeposition and precipitation methods. J Clean Prod 148:233–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.158

Tchounwou PB, Yedjou CG, Patlolla AK, Sutton DJ (2012) Heavy metals toxicity and the environment. NIH Public Access 101:133–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6

Thomas M, Corry B (2016) A computational assessment of the permeability and salt rejection of carbon nanotube membranes and their application to water desalination. Philos Trans R Soc A Math Phys Eng Sci 374:20150020

Tien TT, Luu TL (2020) Electrooxidation of tannery wastewater with continuous flow system: role of electrode materials. Environ Eng Res 25:324–334. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2018.349

Tortora F, Innocenzi V, Prisciandaro M, de Michelis I, Vegliò F, di Celso GM (2018) Removal of tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide from synthetic liquid wastes of electronic industry through micellar enhanced ultrafiltration. J Dispers Sci Technol 39:207–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2017.1307760

Tounsadi H, Khalidi A, Farnane M, Abdennouria M, Barka N (2016) Experimental design for the optimization of preparation conditions of highly efficient activated carbon from Glebionis coronaria L . and heavy metals removal ability. Process Saf Environ Protect 102:710–723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2016.05.017

Turhanen P, Vepsäläinen J, Peräniemi S (2015) Advanced material and approach for metal ions removal from aqueous solutions. Sci Rep 5:8992. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08992

Vasanth D, Prasad AD (2019) Ceramic membrane: synthesis and application for wastewater treatment-a review. In: Water resources and environmental engineering ii, Springer, Singapore, pp 101–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2038-5_10

Vasudevan S, Oturan MA (2014) Electrochemistry: as cause and cure in water pollution-an overview. Environ Chem Lett 12:97–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-013-0434-2

Vecino V, Reig M, Lopez J, Valderrama C, Cortina JL (2021) Valorisation options for Zn and Cu recovery from metal influenced acid mine waters through selective precipitation and ion-exchange processes: promotion of on-site/off-site management options. Environ Manag 283:112004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112004

Vik AE, Carlson DA, Eikun SA, Gjessing ET (1984) Electro-coagulation of portable water. Water Res 18:1355–1361. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(84)90003-4

Vries W, Romkens PF, Schutze G (2007) Critical soil concentrations of cadmium, lead, and mercury in view of health effects on humans and animals. Rev Environ Contam 191:91. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-69163-3_4.Kumar

Vunain E, Mishra AK, Mamba BB (2016) Dendrimers, mesoporous silicas and chitosan-based nano sorbents for the removal of heavy-metal ions: a review. Int J Biol Macromol 86:570–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.02.005

Wadhawan S, Jain A, Nayyar J, Mehta SK (2020) Role of nanomaterials as adsorbents in heavy metal ion removal from waste water: A review. J Water Process Eng 33:101038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2019.101038

Wanekaya AK (2011) Applications of nanoscale carbon-based materials in heavy metal sensing and detection. Analyst 136:4383–4439. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1AN15574A

Wang Z, Sun Y, Tang N, Miao C, Wang Y, Tang L, Wang S, Yang X (2019) Simultaneous extraction and recovery of gold(I) from alkaline solutions using an environmentally benign polymer inclusion membrane with ionic liquid as the carrier. Sep Purif Technol 222:136–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.04.030

Wang C, Lin G, Xi Y, Li X, Huang Z, Wang S, Zhao J, Zhang L (2020) Development of mercapto succinic anchored MOF through one-step preparation to enhance adsorption capacity and selectivity for Hg (II) and Pb (II). J Mol Liq 317:113896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2020.113896

Wang C, Li T, Yu G, Deng S (2021a) Removal of low concentrations of nickel ions in electroplating wastewater by combination of electrodialysis and electrodeposition. Chemosphere 263:128208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128208

Wang MY, An Y, Huang J, Sun X, Yang AM, Zhou Z (2021b) Elucidating the intensifying effect of introducing influent to an anaerobic side-stream reactor on sludge reduction of the coupled membrane bioreactors. Bioresour Technol 342:125931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125931

White RL, White CM, Turgut H, Massoud A, Tian ZR (2018) Comparative studies on copper adsorption by graphene oxide and functionalized graphene oxide nanoparticles. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 85:18–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.01.036

Wintz H, Fox T, Vulpe C (2002) Responses of plants to iron, zinc and copper deficiencies. Biochem Soc Trans 30:766–768. https://doi.org/10.1042/bst0300766

Wu H, Wang W, Huang Y, Han G, Yang S, Su S, Sana H, Peng W, Cao Y, Liu J (2019) Comprehensive evaluation on a prospective precipitation-flotation process for metal-ions removal from wastewater simulants. J Hazard Mater 371:592–602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.03.048

Yadav V, Rathod NH, Sharma J, Kulshrestha V (2021) Long side-chain type partially cross-linked poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) anion exchange membranes for desalination via electrodialysis. J Membr Sci 622:119034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2020.119034

Yadav N, Singh S, Saini O, Srivastava S (2022) Technological advancement in the remediation of heavy metals employing engineered nanoparticles: a step towards cleaner water process. Environ Nanotechnol Moni Manag. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2022.100757

Yamjala K, Nainar MS, Ramisetti NR (2016) Methods for the analysis of azo dyes employed in food industry-a review. Food Chem 192:813824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.07.085

Yan X, Ge H (2023) Preparation of metal organic frameworks modified chitosan composite with high capacity for Hg (II) adsorption. Int J Bio Macromol 232:123329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123329

Yan H, Ali A, Su J, Shi J, Xu L, Huang T, Wang Y (2023) Sodium alginate/sinter gel spheres immobilized lysozyme producing strain SJ25 enhanced sludge reduction: Optimization and mechanism. Biores Technol 371:128643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2023.128643

Yang Z, Zhou Y, Feng Z, Rui X, Zhang T, Zhang Z (2019) A Review on reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes for water purification. Polymers 11(1252):10. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11081252

Yavuz Y, Shahbazi R, Koparal AS, Ogutveren UB (2014) Treatment of Basic Red 29 dye solution using iron-aluminum electrode pairs by electrocoagulation and electro-Fenton methods. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:8603–8609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2789-8

Ye B, Lan J, Nong Z, Qin C, Ye M, Liang J, Li J, Huang W (2022) Efficiently combined technology of precipitation, bipolar membrane electrodialysis, and adsorption for salt-containing soil washing wastewater treatment. Process Safe Environ Protect 165:205–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.07.015

Yu H, Liu C, Li Y, Huang A (2019) Functionalized metal-organic framework UiO-66-NH-BQB for selective detection of hydrogen sulfide and cysteine. ACS Appl Mater Inter 11:41972–41978. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b16529

Zereshki S, Daraei P, Shokri A (2018) Application of edible paraffin oil for cationic dye removal from water using emulsion liquid membrane. J Hazard Mat 356:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.05.037

Zhang P, Gong JL, Zeng GM, Song B, Cao W, Liu HY, Huan SY, Peng P (2019a) Novel “loose” GO/MoS2 composites membranes with enhanced permeability for effective salts and dyes rejection at low pressure. J Membr Sci 574:112–123

Zhang Y, Hua Y, Wang L, Sun W (2019b) Systematic review of lithium extraction from salt-lake brines via precipitation approaches. Eng Min 139:105868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2019.105868

Zhao D, Yu S (2015) A review of recent advance in fouling mitigation of NF/RO membranes in water treatment: pretreatment, membrane modification, and chemical cleaning. Desalin Water Treat 55:870–891. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2014.928804

Zhao M, Xu Y, Zhang C, Rong H, Zeng G (2016) New trends in removing heavy metals from wastewater. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 100:6509–6518

Zhao D, Lee LY, Ong SL, Chowdhury P, Siah KB, Ng HY (2019a) Electrodialysis reversal for industrial reverse osmosis brine treatment. Sep Purif Technol 213:339–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.12.056

Zhao D, Wang Y, Zhao S, Wakeel M, Wang Z, Shaikh RS, Hayat T, Chen C (2019b) A simple method for preparing ultra-light graphene aerogel for rapid removal of U (VI) from aqueous solution. Environ Pollut 251:547–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.011

Zhao M, Huang Z, Wang S, Zhang L, Zhou Y (2019c) Design of L-cysteine functionalized UiO-66 MOFs for selective adsorption of Hg (II) in aqueous medium. ACS Appl Mater Inter 11:46973–46983. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b17508

Zhao X, Do H, Zou Y, Li Z, Zhang X, Zhao S, Li M, Wu L (2019d) Rahnella sp. LRP3 induces phosphate precipitation of Cu (II) and its role in copper-contaminated soil remediation. J Hazard Mater 368:133–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.01.029

Zhu C, Wang W, Wu Z, Zhang X, Chu Z, Yang Z (2023) Preparation of cellulose-based porous adsorption materials derived from corn straw for wastewater purification. Int J Bio Macromol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123595

Zolgharnein J, Bagtash M, Feshki S, Zolgharnein P, Hammond D (2017) Crossed mixture process design optimization and adsorption characterization of multi-metal (Cu (II), Zn (II) and Ni (II)) removal by modified Buxus sempervirens tree leaves. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 78(104–11):7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2017.03.020

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Research Laboratory-III, Department of Chemical Engineering, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal, Punjab, 148106, India

Anil Kumar & Avinash Thakur

Food Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal, 148106, Punjab, India

Parmjit Singh Panesar

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Avinash Thakur .

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Kumar, A., Thakur, A. & Panesar, P.S. A review on the industrial wastewater with the efficient treatment techniques. Chem. Pap. 77 , 4131–4163 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-023-02779-3

Download citation

Received : 11 November 2022

Accepted : 10 March 2023

Published : 06 April 2023

Issue Date : August 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-023-02779-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

  • Environment
  • Health hazards
  • Heavy metals
  • Separation technologies
  • Find a journal
  • Publish with us
  • Track your research

IMAGES

  1. Introduction to Wastewater Treatment

    review of literature on wastewater treatment

  2. (PDF) Oily wastewater treatment using a zirconia ceramic membrane

    review of literature on wastewater treatment

  3. A Review on Wastewater Treatment Using Sequential Batchreactor

    review of literature on wastewater treatment

  4. Novel Approaches Towards Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery

    review of literature on wastewater treatment

  5. (PDF) Waste Water Treatment Using Micro-Algae -A review Paper

    review of literature on wastewater treatment

  6. (PDF) Phosphorus recovery from municipal wastewater

    review of literature on wastewater treatment

VIDEO

  1. wastewater Treatment and Recycling Assignment-8 #nptel #nptel2023 #assignment

  2. Indiana High-Strength Waste Septic System Design Featuring SludgeHammer Secondary Treatment

COMMENTS

  1. Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: a Review of its Applications ...

    Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: a Review of its Applications and Health Implications | Water, Air, & Soil Pollution Home Water, Air, & Soil Pollution Article Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: a Review of its Applications and Health Implications Open access Published: 10 May 2021 Volume 232, article number 208, ( 2021 ) Cite this article Download PDF

  2. PDF CWRS Literature Review for Wastewater Treatment

    A review of the scientific literature and engineering consultant reports dealing with WSP and treatment wetland performance in Canada's North and other cold climate regions showed that treatment can be highly variable. WSP and treatment wetlands provide wastewater treatment

  3. Membrane Technologies in Wastewater Treatment: A Review

    2. Membrane Technology for Wastewater Treatment. Basically, a membrane is a barrier which separates two phases from each other by restricting movement of components through it in a selective style [].Membranes have been in existence since the 18 th century. Since then, a lot of improvements have taken place to make membranes better suited for many different applications [].

  4. Sewage/Wastewater Treatment Literature Review

    Sewage/Wastewater Treatment Literature Review Authors: Sasan Kordrostami Abstract Sewage/Wastewater treatment consists of different processes which protect the environment and human health...

  5. A critical review of conventional and emerging wastewater treatment

    Water stress is a major concern in today's world as many cities worldwide face fast depleting potable water supply. The prevailing water emergency warrants a conscious effort to reuse mitigated wastewater such that the use of residual natural reserves is limited to drinking purposes only. To accomplish adequate wastewater remediation, the greatest challenge, apart from policy and ...

  6. Municipal wastewater treatment technologies: A review

    Municipal wastewater treatment plants have the potential to become net producers of renewable energy, converting the chemically bound energy content in the organic pollutants of raw municipal wastewater to a useful energy carrier (biogas), while producing clean water for communities in the vicinity. This paper presents a review of the different ...

  7. A state-of-the-art review on wastewater treatment techniques: the

    1 Mention Explore all metrics Abstract The world's water supplies have been contaminated due to large effluents containing toxic pollutants such as dyes, heavy metals, surfactants, personal care products, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals from agricultural, industrial, and municipal resources into water streams.

  8. A systematic review of industrial wastewater management: Evaluating

    Waste water treatment involves a complex set of processes that can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as the type and quantity of pollutants, the characteristics of the waste water, and the capacity and efficiency of treatment plants. ... The literature review has been performed to define and categorize the industrial wastewater ...

  9. Wastewater treatment, reuse, and disposal‐associated effects on

    Besides, the review also covers research focused on wastewater treatment plants, disposal, and the management of wastewater sludge as well as biosolids in the environment. Practitioner points This paper highlights the review of scientific literature published in the year 2019.

  10. A Systematic Review of Drivers of Sustainable Wastewater Treatment

    Abstract In this systematic review we explore the forces that encourage or hinder the adoption of wastewater treatment and/or management technology. Our literature search uncovered 37 sources that discuss these issues. Retrieved sources were then subjected to qualitative synthesis.

  11. Literature Review Wastewater treatment

    The litera Weber8 provides a treatise on the prin ture on physical-chemical methods pub ciples and applications of physical and lished during 1972 was reviewed by Cohen chemical methods of waste treatment. and Kugelman.2 Middlebrooks et al.3 re Operation of pilot-scale, physical-chemi viewed the capabilities and costs of a num cal systems was re...

  12. Wastewater Treatment and Reuse for Sustainable Water Resources ...

    A systematic literature review was selected for this study to evaluate and synthesize the available evidence in support of wastewater treatment for both economic and environmental sustainability. The articles were evaluated using the PRISMA framework to identify the most appropriate articles for inclusion.

  13. Textiles wastewater treatment technology: A review

    The following is a review of published literature on textile wastewater in 2019. Presented are the sections described for the review: concise introduction on the textiles wastewater, followed by a review of present textile treatment technologies organized by physicochemical, biological, and combined processes.

  14. Life cycle cost analysis of wastewater treatment: A systematic review

    Highlights • An extensive systematic review of 83 case studies on life cycle costing of wastewater treatments. • Current trend shows that Economic and environmental assessments are combined in single case studies. • A gradual shift in environmental LCC from Conventional LCC is observed in last five years. •

  15. A critical review of resource recovery from municipal wastewater

    Second, resource recovery technologies investigated in academia are reviewed comprehensively and critically. The third section of the review identifies nine non-technical bottlenecks mentioned in literature that have to be overcome to successfully implement these technologies into wastewater treatment process designs.

  16. PDF Wastewater Treatment Systems on Literature Review: Impacts of Onsite

    3.1 An Evaluation of Five Lake George Septic Disposal Systems. 1981. Min Chen, of the New York State Department of Health - Division of Laboratories and Research evaluated wastewater treatment of five septic disposal systems located on the western shore of Lake George. The study included groundwater sampling between the septic systems and the ...

  17. Recent advances of silicate materials for wastewater treatment: a review

    Recent advances of silicate materials for wastewater treatment: a review. ... This detailed review compiles and analyzes the extensive body of literature spanning the past six years (2018-2023), emphasizing the pivotal discoveries associated with employing silicates as water purification materials. ... This review article provides a ...

  18. Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Technologies: A Review of Technical

    The activated sludge process is the most widespread sewage treatment method. It typically consists of a pretreatment step, followed by a primary settling tank, an aerobic degradation process, and, finally, a secondary settling tank. The secondary effluent is then usually chlorinated and discharged to a water body. Tertiary treatment aims at improving the characteristics of the secondary ...

  19. Wastewater treatment, reuse, and disposal‐associated effects on

    This paper highlights the review of scientific literature published in the year 2019. Review provide issues related to health risks associated with human and the general environment on the reuse of wastewater, treatment as well as disposal. The literature review covers selected papers relevant to the topic.

  20. (PDF) Wastewater Treatment and Reuse for Sustainable ...

    A systematic literature review was selected for this study to evaluate and synthesize the available evidence in support of wastewater treatment for both economic and environmental...

  21. Fundamentals and applications in water treatment

    For papers regarding water and wastewater treatment, we are interested in both conceptual advance and potential for practical use. There should be some kind of limit to the number of times a ...

  22. Emerging pollutants in wastewater: A review of the literature

    In the literature review, several parameters studied by different authors appeared essential for understanding the variations of concentrations of emerging pollutants in wastewater before and after treatment plant, regardless of treatment performed in the WWTPs. First of all, the concept of dilution is important to consider.

  23. Critical review of microplastic in membrane treatment plant: Removal

    Microplastics (MP) are emerging contaminants that are leading to great concern in the water and wastewater treatment sector. Membrane technologies have been applied for the direct or indirect removal of MP from aqueous matrices. Therefore, this review sought to compile studies on MP removal from water, wastewater, and leachate by membranes to fill gaps in knowledge about the occurrence of MP ...

  24. Advanced Oxidation Treatment of Emerging Pollutants from Pharmaceutical

    The review will give insights for the pharmaceutical industry wastewater treatment and subsequently help the industry to choose the best treatment method. The combination of AOPs are more effective at removing emerging pollutants in terms of higher degradation efficacies. ... AOPs present an alternative to conventional wastewater treatment ...

  25. Full article: Addressing adsorbent materials commercialization

    The demand for water and wastewater treatment is increasing due to growth in world population, changes in the dynamics of the global water cycle due to climate change, and pollution of water resources. ... However, according to the literature review, productization activities necessitate a skilled workforce for engineering and managing product ...

  26. Environmental Assessment of Wastewater Treatment and Reuse for ...

    Our findings highlight that more holistic studies that take into account the expansion of system boundaries and the use of a broad set of environmental impact categories, supported by uncertainty and/or sensitivity analysis, are required.

  27. Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes towards carbon ...

    Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) have been widely studied in efficient wastewater treatment for achieving high degradation efficiency of pollutants even at the expense of high electric energy consumption and carbon emissions. This development is inconsistent with the initiative of carbon neutrality. Despite the growing numbers of published papers on EAOPs, there is still a ...

  28. A review on the industrial wastewater with the efficient treatment

    Nowadays, a debate related to water pollution is going on due to its growing noticeable effects on the ecosystem. The treatment of industrial wastewater has become a great environmental concern because of the speedy progress of economy and industries. Water pollution due to the presence of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Cd, Hg, etc.) has a significant public health hazard and also exhibits ...

  29. Mining wastewater treatment technologies and resource recovery

    Mining wastewater can have adverse effects on the ecosystem; thus, treatment before discharging into the environment is of utmost importance. This manuscript reports on the effect of mining wastewater on the environment. Moreover, the currently used, effective and commercialised mine wastewater treatment technologies such as SAVMIN®, SPARRO®, Biogenic sulphide, and DESALX® are reported in ...