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How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

  • Search for relevant literature
  • Evaluate sources
  • Identify themes, debates, and gaps
  • Outline the structure
  • Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

  • Quick Run-through
  • Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

  • Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
  • Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
  • Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
  • Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
  • Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Literature review guide

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

  • Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
  • Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
  • Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
  • Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

  • Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
  • Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
  • Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

  • Your university’s library catalogue
  • Google Scholar
  • Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
  • Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
  • EconLit (economics)
  • Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

  • What question or problem is the author addressing?
  • What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
  • What are the key theories, models, and methods?
  • Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
  • What are the results and conclusions of the study?
  • How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
  • What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

  • Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
  • Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
  • Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
  • Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
  • Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

  • Most research has focused on young women.
  • There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
  • But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

  • Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
  • Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
  • Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

  • Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
  • Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
  • Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
  • Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • Sampling methods
  • Simple random sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Cluster sampling
  • Likert scales
  • Reproducibility

 Statistics

  • Null hypothesis
  • Statistical power
  • Probability distribution
  • Effect size
  • Poisson distribution

Research bias

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  • Cognitive bias
  • Implicit bias
  • Hawthorne effect
  • Anchoring bias
  • Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

  • To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
  • To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
  • To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
  • To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
  • To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

  • An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
  • A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
  • Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
  • Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
  • Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
  • Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
  • Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

  • Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
  • Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

  • Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
  • Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
  • Qualitative versus quantitative research
  • Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
  • Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
  • Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

  • It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
  • Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
  • Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
  • Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

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A general guide on how to conduct and write a literature review.

Please check course or programme information and materials provided by teaching staff , including your project supervisor, for subject-specific guidance.

What is a literature review?

A literature review is a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge and understanding of the academic literature on a specific topic placed in context.  A literature review also includes a critical evaluation of the material; this is why it is called a literature review rather than a literature report. It is a process of reviewing the literature, as well as a form of writing.

To illustrate the difference between reporting and reviewing, think about television or film review articles.  These articles include content such as a brief synopsis or the key points of the film or programme plus the critic’s own evaluation.  Similarly the two main objectives of a literature review are firstly the content covering existing research, theories and evidence, and secondly your own critical evaluation and discussion of this content. 

Usually a literature review forms a section or part of a dissertation, research project or long essay.  However, it can also be set and assessed as a standalone piece of work.

What is the purpose of a literature review?

…your task is to build an argument, not a library. Rudestam, K.E. and Newton, R.R. (1992) Surviving your dissertation: A comprehensive guide to content and process. California: Sage, p49.

In a larger piece of written work, such as a dissertation or project, a literature review is usually one of the first tasks carried out after deciding on a topic.  Reading combined with critical analysis can help to refine a topic and frame research questions.  Conducting a literature review establishes your familiarity with and understanding of current research in a particular field before carrying out a new investigation.  After doing a literature review, you should know what research has already been done and be able to identify what is unknown within your topic.

When doing and writing a literature review, it is good practice to:

  • summarise and analyse previous research and theories;
  • identify areas of controversy and contested claims;
  • highlight any gaps that may exist in research to date.

Conducting a literature review

Focusing on different aspects of your literature review can be useful to help plan, develop, refine and write it.  You can use and adapt the prompt questions in our worksheet below at different points in the process of researching and writing your review.  These are suggestions to get you thinking and writing.

Developing and refining your literature review (pdf)

Developing and refining your literature review (Word)

Developing and refining your literature review (Word rtf)

Writing a literature review has a lot in common with other assignment tasks.  There is advice on our other pages about thinking critically, reading strategies and academic writing.  Our literature review top tips suggest some specific things you can do to help you submit a successful review.

Literature review top tips (pdf)

Literature review top tips (Word rtf)

Our reading page includes strategies and advice on using books and articles and a notes record sheet grid you can use.

Reading at university

The Academic writing page suggests ways to organise and structure information from a range of sources and how you can develop your argument as you read and write.

Academic writing

The Critical thinking page has advice on how to be a more critical researcher and a form you can use to help you think and break down the stages of developing your argument.

Critical thinking

As with other forms of academic writing, your literature review needs to demonstrate good academic practice by following the Code of Student Conduct and acknowledging the work of others through citing and referencing your sources.  

Good academic practice

As with any writing task, you will need to review, edit and rewrite sections of your literature review.  The Editing and proofreading page includes tips on how to do this and strategies for standing back and thinking about your structure and checking the flow of your argument.

Editing and proofreading

Guidance on literature searching from the University Library

The Academic Support Librarians have developed LibSmart I and II, Learn courses to help you develop and enhance your digital research skills and capabilities; from getting started with the Library to managing data for your dissertation.

Searching using the library’s DiscoverEd tool: DiscoverEd

Finding resources in your subject: Subject guides

The Academic Support Librarians also provide one-to-one appointments to help you develop your research strategies.

1 to 1 support for literature searching and systematic reviews

Advice to help you optimise use of Google Scholar, Google Books and Google for your research and study: Using Google

Managing and curating your references

A referencing management tool can help you to collect and organise and your source material to produce a bibliography or reference list. 

Referencing and reference management

Information Services provide access to Cite them right online which is a guide to the main referencing systems and tells you how to reference just about any source (EASE log-in may be required).

Cite them right

Published study guides

There are a number of scholarship skills books and guides available which can help with writing a literature review.  Our Resource List of study skills guides includes sections on Referencing, Dissertation and project writing and Literature reviews.

Study skills guides

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What is a Literature Review?

A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important past and current research and practices. It provides background and context, and shows how your research will contribute to the field. 

A literature review should: 

  • Provide a comprehensive and updated review of the literature;
  • Explain why this review has taken place;
  • Articulate a position or hypothesis;
  • Acknowledge and account for conflicting and corroborating points of view

From  S age Research Methods

Purpose of a Literature Review

A literature review can be written as an introduction to a study to:

  • Demonstrate how a study fills a gap in research
  • Compare a study with other research that's been done

Or it can be a separate work (a research article on its own) which:

  • Organizes or describes a topic
  • Describes variables within a particular issue/problem

Limitations of a Literature Review

Some of the limitations of a literature review are:

  • It's a snapshot in time. Unlike other reviews, this one has beginning, a middle and an end. There may be future developments that could make your work less relevant.
  • It may be too focused. Some niche studies may miss the bigger picture.
  • It can be difficult to be comprehensive. There is no way to make sure all the literature on a topic was considered.
  • It is easy to be biased if you stick to top tier journals. There may be other places where people are publishing exemplary research. Look to open access publications and conferences to reflect a more inclusive collection. Also, make sure to include opposing views (and not just supporting evidence).

Source: Grant, Maria J., and Andrew Booth. “A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types and Associated Methodologies.” Health Information & Libraries Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, June 2009, pp. 91–108. Wiley Online Library, doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x.

Meryl Brodsky : Communication and Information Studies

Hannah Chapman Tripp : Biology, Neuroscience

Carolyn Cunningham : Human Development & Family Sciences, Psychology, Sociology

Larayne Dallas : Engineering

Janelle Hedstrom : Special Education, Curriculum & Instruction, Ed Leadership & Policy ​

Susan Macicak : Linguistics

Imelda Vetter : Dell Medical School

For help in other subject areas, please see the guide to library specialists by subject .

Periodically, UT Libraries runs a workshop covering the basics and library support for literature reviews. While we try to offer these once per academic year, we find providing the recording to be helpful to community members who have missed the session. Following is the most recent recording of the workshop, Conducting a Literature Review. To view the recording, a UT login is required.

  • October 26, 2022 recording
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  • URL: https://guides.lib.utexas.edu/literaturereviews

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

  • Explains the background of research on a topic.
  • Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
  • Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
  • Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
  • Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
  • Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

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1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

  • Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
  • Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
  • If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

  • This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

  • use the tabs on this guide
  • Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
  • More on the Medical Library web page
  • ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

  • Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
  • Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
  • Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
  • Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
  • Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
  • Ask your librarian for help at any time.
  • Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

  • What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
  • Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
  • What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
  • Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
  • If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
  • How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

  • Review the abstracts carefully.  
  • Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
  • Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
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Academic writing: What is a literature review?

A review of the literature in a discipline is not the same as an annotated bibliography of sources, though an annotated bibliography can be a type of literature review. The purpose of a lit review is not only to tell your reader the state of scholarship about a given topic, but also to organize and evaluate the major points, parts, or arguments of each source. From the University of Toronto Writing Centre’s Tips on Conducting the Literature Review :

"A literature review is a piece of discursive prose , not a list describing or summarizing one piece of literature after another. It's usually a bad sign to see every paragraph beginning with the name of a researcher. Instead, organize the literature review into sections that present themes or identify trends, including relevant theory. You are not trying to list all the material published, but to synthesize and evaluate it according to the guiding concept of your thesis or research question."

A lit review may serve as a stand-alone piece or article. For example, see this published  Stand-Alone Literature Review  (content note: this literature review focuses on the topic of abuse against women with disabilities). However, more often a lit review is part of a larger research publication. For example, see this published research article that includes a Literature Review  (content note: this article discusses depression among college students). 

What should a literature review include?

Introduction:   Explain why this research topic is important. Outline what direction your review will take: i.e., what aspects of the topic you’re focusing on.

Body :  Present your summaries and evaluations of the sources in a clear, logical, and coherent manner. Some options for organizing your review include chronological, order of importance, two sides of a controversial problem, differences in perspective or viewpoint. Your review must “read” like a coherent paper, not a list.

Note: Most literature reviews describe only the main findings, relevant methodological issues, and/or major conclusions of other research.

Ensure your final list of references includes all sources you’ve discussed, and use the citation style required in your discipline.

Don’t provide a lot of detail about the procedures used in your sources. Don’t mention every study conducted on the topic. Include only the ones that are most relevant for the purpose and scope of your review.

Plan and organize your literature review

  • Define your central problem, issue, or focus (create a research question or thesis statement)
  • Consider audience expectations. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
  • summarize the “gist” or main ideas of the source
  • comment on the source’s usefulness, relevance, methodology, and/or findings in the context of your question or issue
  • Do not use a “list-like” approach in drafting your lit review. Rather, organize your information logically to address your research question, thesis, or central issue. For more, see the Writeonline.ca guide to Literature Reviews and the Monash University Learn HQ mini-module on Literature Reviews (including sections on the process of writing a literature review, structuring a literature review, and the language of literature reviews). 

Revise your literature review, keeping in mind these tips for effective writing

  • Pay attention to sentence structure
  • Use the active and passive voices appropriately
  • Reduce or omit wordy, redundant phrases
  • Proofread for common punctuation and expression errors

For more about literature reviews, including definitions, protocols and guidelines, search strategies, and managing citations, see the Library's Literature reviews for graduate students .

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is a discussion of previously published information on a particular topic, providing summary and connections to help readers understand the research that has been completed on a subject and why it is important. Unlike a research paper, a literature review does not develop a new argument, instead focusing on what has been argued or proven in past papers. However, a literature review should not just be an annotated bibliography that lists the sources found; the literature review should be organized thematically as a cohesive paper.

Why write a literature review?

Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to most research papers.

Who writes literature reviews?

Literature reviews are sometimes written in the humanities, but more often in the sciences and social sciences. In scientific reports and longer papers, they constitute one section of the work. Literature reviews can also be written as stand-alone papers.

How Should I Organize My Literature Review?

Here are some ways to organize a literature review from Purdue OWL: 

  • Chronological:  The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. 
  • Thematic:  If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
  • Methodological:  If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods, you can compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example: Qualitative versus quantitative research, empirical versus theoretical scholarship, divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources.
  • Theoretical:  In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Outline Your Literature Review's Structure

How to Write a Literature Review

Literature Reviews: An Overview for Graduate Students

Writing the Literature Review

Find a focus Just like a term paper, a literature review is organized around ideas, not just sources. Use the research question you developed in planning your review and the issues or themes that connect your sources together to create a thesis statement. Yes, literature reviews have thesis statements! But your literature review thesis statement will be presenting a perspective on the material, rather than arguing for a position or opinion. For example:

The current trend in treatment for congestive heart failure combines surgery and medicine.

More and more cultural studies scholars are accepting popular media as a subject worthy of academic consideration.

Consider organization Once you have your thesis statement, you will need to think about the best way to effectively organize the information you have in your review. Like most academic papers, literature reviews should have an introduction, body, and conclusion. 

Use evidence and be selective When making your points in your literature review, you should refer to several sources as evidence, just like in any academic paper. Your interpretation of the available information must be backed up with evidence to show that your ideas are valid. You also need to be selective about the information you choose to include in your review. Select only the most important points in each source, making sure everything you mention relates to the review's focus.

Summarize and synthesize Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources in each paragraph as well as throughout the review. You should not be doing in-depth analysis in your review, so keep your use of quotes to a minimum. A literature review is not just a summary of current sources; you should be keeping your own voice and saying something new about the collection of sources you have put together.

Revise, revise, revise When you have finished writing the literature review, you still have one final step! Spending a lot of time revising is important to make sure you have presented your information in the best way possible. Check your review to see if it follows the assignment instructions and/or your outline. Rewrite or rework your language to be more concise and double check that you have documented your sources and formatted your review appropriately.

The Literature Review Model

academic work literature review

Machi, Lawrence A, and Brenda T McEvoy. The Literature Review: Six Steps to Success. 2Nd ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press, 2012.

What the Literature Review IS and ISN'T:

Need assistance with writing? 24/7 help available

academic work literature review

Literature Review Sample Paper

  • Literature Review Sample 1
  • Literature Review Sample 2
  • Literature Review Sample 3

Literature Review Tips

  • Taking Notes For The Literature Review
  • The Art of Scan Reading
  • UNC-Chapel Hill Writing Guide for Literature Reviews
  • Literature Review Guidelines from Purdue OWL

Organizing Your Review

As you read and evaluate your literature there are several different ways to organize your research . Courtesy of Dr. Gary Burkholder in the School of Psychology, these sample matrices are one option to help organize your articles. These documents allow you to compile details about your sources, such as the foundational theories, methodologies, and conclusions; begin to note similarities among the authors; and retrieve citation information for easy insertion within a document.

  • Literature Review Matrix 1
  • Literature Review Matrix 2
  • Spreadsheet Style

How to Create a Literature Matrix using Excel

Synthesis for Literature Reviews

Developing a Research Question 

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How to Write a Literature Review

  • What Is a Literature Review

What Is the Literature

  • Writing the Review

The "literature" that is reviewed is the collection of publications (academic journal articles, books, conference proceedings, association papers, dissertations, etc) written by scholars and researchers for scholars and researchers. The professional literature is one (very significant) source of information for researchers, typically referred to as the secondary literature, or secondary sources. To use it, it is useful to know how it is created and how to access it.

The "Information Cycle"

The diagram below is a brief general picture of how scholarly literature is produced and used. Research does not have a beginning or an end; researchers build on work that has already been done in order to add to it, thus providing more resources for other researchers to build on. They read the professional literature of their field to see what issues, questions, and problems are current, then formulate a plan to address one or a few of those issues. Then they make a more focused review of the literature, which they use to refine their research plan. After carrying out the research, they present their results (presentations at conferences, published articles, etc) to other scholars in the field, i.e. they add to the general subject reading ("the literature").

  Research may not have a beginning or an end, but researchers have to begin somewhere. As noted above, the professional literature is typically referred to as secondary sources. Primary and tertiary sources also play important roles in research. Note, though, that these labels are not rigid distinctions; the same resource can overlap categories.

  • Lab reports (yours or someone else's) - Records of the results of experiments.
  • Field notes, measurements, etc (yours or someone else's) - Records of observations of the natural world (electrons, elephants, earthquakes, etc).
  • Journal articles, conference proceedings , and similar publications reporting results of original research.
  • Historical documents - Official papers, maps, treaties, etc.
  • Government publications - Census statistics, economic data, court reports, etc.
  • Statistical data - Measurements (counts, surveys, etc.) compiled by researchers.
  • First-person accounts - Diaries, memoirs, letters, interviews, speeches
  • Newspapers - Some types of articles, e.g. stories on a breaking issue, or journalists reporting the results of their investigations.
  • Published writings - Novels, stories, poems, essays, philosophical treatises, etc
  • Works of art - Paintings, sculptures, etc.
  • Recordings - audio, video, photographic
  • Conference proceedings - Scholars and researchers getting together and presenting their latest ideas and findings
  • Internet - Web sites that publish the author's findings or research; e.g. your professor's home page listing research results. Note: use extreme caution when using the Internet as a primary source … remember, anyone with internet access can post whatever they want.
  • Archives - Records (minutes of meetings, purchase invoices, financial statements, etc.) of an organization (e.g. The Nature Conservancy), institution (e.g. Wesleyan University), business, or other group entity (even the Grateful Dead has an archivist on staff).
  • Artifacts - manufactured items such as clothing, furniture, tools, buildings
  • Manuscript collections - Collected writings, notes, letters, diaries, and other unpublished works.
  • Books or articles - Depending on the purpose and perspective of your project, works intended as secondary sources -- analyzing or critiquing primary sources -- can serve as primary sources for your research.
  • Secondary - Books, articles, and other writings by scholars and researchers reporting their analysis of their primary sources to others. They may be reporting the results of their own primary research or critiquing the work of others. As such, these sources are usually a major focus of a literature review: this is where you go to find out in detail what has been and is being done in a field, and thus to see how your work can contribute to the field.   
  • Summaries / Introductions - Encyclopedias, dictionaries, textbooks, yearbooks, and other sources which provide an introductory or summary state of the art of the research in the subject areas covered. They are an efficient means to quickly build a general framework for understanding a field.
  • Indexes to publications - Provide lists of primary and secondary sources of more extensive information. They are an efficient means of finding books, articles, conference proceedings, and other publications in which scholars report the results of their research.

Work backwards . Usually, your research should begin with tertiary sources:

  • Tertiary - Start by finding background information on your topic by consulting reference sources for introductions and summaries, and to find bibliographies or citations of secondary and primary sources.
  • Secondary - Find books, articles, and other sources providing more extensive and thorough analyses of a topic. Check to see what other scholars have to say about your topic, find out what has been done and where there is a need for further research, and discover appropriate methodologies for carrying out that research. 
  • Primary - Now that you have a solid background knowledge of your topic and a plan for your own research, you are better able to understand, interpret, and analyze the primary source information. See if you can find primary source evidence to support or refute what other scholars have said about your topic, or posit an interpretation of your own and look for more primary sources or create more original data to confirm or refute your thesis. When you present your conclusions, you will have produced another secondary source to aid others in their research.

Publishing the Literature

There are a variety of avenues for scholars to report the results of their research, and each has a role to play in scholarly communication. Not all of these avenues result in official or easily findable publications, or even any publication at all. The categories of scholarly communication listed here are a general outline; keep in mind that they can vary in type and importance between disciplines.

Peer Review - An important part of academic publishing is the peer review, or refereeing,  process. When a scholar submits an article to an academic journal or a book manuscript to a university publisher, the editors or publishers will send copies to other scholars and experts in that field who will review it. The reviewers will check to make sure the author has used methodologies appropriate to the topic, used those methodologies properly, taken other relevant work into account, and adequately supported the conclusions, as well as consider the relevance and importance to the field. A submission may be rejected, or sent back for revisions before being accepted for publication.

Peer review does not guarantee that an article or book is 100% correct. Rather, it provides a "stamp of approval" saying that experts in the field have judged this to be a worthy contribution to the professional discussion of an academic field.

Peer reviewed journals typically note that they are peer reviewed, usually somewhere in the first few pages of each issue. Books published by university presses typically go through a similar review process. Other book publishers may also have a peer review process. But the quality of the reviewing can vary among different book or journal publishers. Use academic book reviews or check how often and in what sources articles in a journal are cited, or ask a professor or two in the field, to get an idea of the reliability and importance of different authors, journals, and publishers.

Informal Sharing - In person or online, researchers discuss their ongoing projects to let others know what they are up to or to give or receive assistance in their work. Conferences, listservs, and online discussion boards are common avenues for these discussions. Increasingly, scholars are using personal web sites to present their work.

Conference Presentations - Many academic organizations sponsor conferences at which scholars read papers, display at poster sessions, or otherwise present the results of their work. To give a presentation, scholars must submit a proposal which is reviewed by those sponsoring the conference. Unless a presentation is published in another venue, it will likely be difficult to find a copy, or even to know what was presented. Some subject specific indexes and other sources list conference proceedings along with the author and contact information.

Conference Papers / Association Papers / Working Papers - Papers presented at a conference, submitted but not yet accepted for publication, works in progress, or not otherwise published are sometimes made available by academic associations. These are often not easy to find, but many are indexed in subject specific indexes or available in subject databases. Sometimes a collection of papers presented at a conference will be published in a book.

Journals - Articles in journals contain specific analyses of particular aspects of a topic. Journal articles can be written and published more quickly than books, academic libraries subscribe to many journals, and the contents of these journals are indexed in a variety of sources so others can easily find them. So, researchers commonly use articles to report their findings to a wide audience, and journals are a good readily available source for anyone researching current information on a topic.

  • Research journals - Articles reporting in detail the results of research.
  • Review journals - Articles reviewing the literature and work done on particular topics.
  • News/Letters journals - News reports, brief research reports, short discussions of current issues.
  • Proceedings/Transactions journals - A common venue for publishing conference papers or other proceedings of academic conferences.
  • General interest magazines - News and other magazines that report scholarly findings for a general, nonacademic audience. These are usually written by journalists (who are usually not academically trained in the field), but sometimes are written by researchers (or at least by journalists with training in the field). Magazines are not peer reviewed, and are usually not academically useful sources of information for research purposes, but they can alert you to work being done in your field and give you a quick summary.
  • Trade journals and magazines - These are written for people working in a particular industry or profession, such as advertising, banking, construction, dentistry, education. Articles are generally written by and for people working in that trade, and focus on current topics and developments in the trade. They do not present academic analyses of their topics, but they can provide useful background or context for academic work if the articles are relevant to your research.

Books - Books take a longer time than articles or conference presentations to get from research to publication, but they can cover a broader range of topics, or cover a topic much more thoroughly. University press books typically go through some sort of a peer review process. There is a wide range of review processes (from rigorous to none at all) among other book publishers.

Dissertations/Theses - Graduate students working on advanced degrees typically must perform a substantial piece of original work, and then present the results in the form of a thesis or dissertation. A master's thesis is typically somewhere between an article and a book in length, and a doctoral dissertation is typically about the length of a book. Both should include extensive bibliographies of their topics. 

Web sites - In addition to researchers informally presenting and discussing their work on personal web pages, there are an increasing number of peer reviewed web sites publishing academic work. The rigor, and even existence, of peer reviewing can vary widely on the web, and it can be difficult to determine the reliability of information presented on the web, so always be careful in relying on a web-based information source. Do your own checking and reviewing to make sure the web site and the information it presents are reliable.

Reference Sources - Subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other reference sources present brief introductions to or summaries of the current work in a field or on a topic. These are typically produced by a scholar and/or publisher serving as an editor who invites submissions for articles from experts on the topics covered.

How to Find the Literature

Just as there are many avenues for the literature to be published and disseminated, there are many avenues for searching for and finding the literature. There are, for example, a variety of general and subject specific indexes which list citations to publications (books, articles, conference proceedings, dissertations, etc). The Wesleyan Library web site has links to the library catalog and many indexes and databases in which to search for resources, along with subject guides to list resources appropriate for specific academic disciplines. When you find some appropriate books, articles, etc, look in their bibliographies for other publications and also for other authors writing about the same topics. For research assistance tailored to your topic, you can sign up for a Personal Research Session with a librarian.

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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

literature review

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process. 

Table of Contents

  • What is the purpose of literature review? 
  • a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction: 
  • b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes: 
  • c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: 
  • d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts: 
  • How to write a good literature review 
  • Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question: 
  • Decide on the Scope of Your Review: 
  • Select Databases for Searches: 
  • Conduct Searches and Keep Track: 
  • Review the Literature: 
  • Organize and Write Your Literature Review: 
  • Frequently asked questions 

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

academic work literature review

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2  

  • Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge. 
  • Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field. 
  • Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research. 
  • Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered. 
  • Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research. 
  • Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature. 

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic. 

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies: 

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements. 

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources. 

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. 

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning. 

academic work literature review

How to write a good literature review

Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements. 

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review. 

  • Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field. 
  • Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address. 
  • Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research. 
  • Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic. 
  • Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review. 

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria. 

  • Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement. 
  • Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic. 
  • Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature. 
  • Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps. 
  • Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review. 

Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research. 

  • Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective. 
  • Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field. 
  • Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice. 
  • Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field. 
  • Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community. 

what is a literature review

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1  

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

  • Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study. 
  • Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore? 

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

  • Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview? 
  • Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region? 
  • Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude? 

Select Databases for Searches:

  • Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. 
  • Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic. 

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

  • Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques. 
  • Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability. 
  • Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references. 

Review the Literature:

  • Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies. 
  • Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research. 
  • Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives. 
  • Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions. 
  • Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research? 

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

  • Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches. 
  • Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered. 
  • Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). 
  • Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research. 

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. 

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.  

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic. 

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods. 

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers.  Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved.  Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic.  Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings.  Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject.  It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review:  Introduction:   Provide an overview of the topic.  Define the scope and purpose of the literature review.  State the research question or objective.  Body:   Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology.  Critically analyze and evaluate each source.  Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.  Highlight any methodological limitations or biases.  Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research.  Conclusion:   Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review.  Highlight the research gap.  Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction.  Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows: 

References 

  • Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234. 
  • Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis. 
  • Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center . 

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How to write a literature review introduction (+ examples)

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The introduction to a literature review serves as your reader’s guide through your academic work and thought process. Explore the significance of literature review introductions in review papers, academic papers, essays, theses, and dissertations. We delve into the purpose and necessity of these introductions, explore the essential components of literature review introductions, and provide step-by-step guidance on how to craft your own, along with examples.

Why you need an introduction for a literature review

When you need an introduction for a literature review, what to include in a literature review introduction, examples of literature review introductions, steps to write your own literature review introduction.

A literature review is a comprehensive examination of the international academic literature concerning a particular topic. It involves summarizing published works, theories, and concepts while also highlighting gaps and offering critical reflections.

In academic writing , the introduction for a literature review is an indispensable component. Effective academic writing requires proper paragraph structuring to guide your reader through your argumentation. This includes providing an introduction to your literature review.

It is imperative to remember that you should never start sharing your findings abruptly. Even if there isn’t a dedicated introduction section .

Instead, you should always offer some form of introduction to orient the reader and clarify what they can expect.

There are three main scenarios in which you need an introduction for a literature review:

  • Academic literature review papers: When your literature review constitutes the entirety of an academic review paper, a more substantial introduction is necessary. This introduction should resemble the standard introduction found in regular academic papers.
  • Literature review section in an academic paper or essay: While this section tends to be brief, it’s important to precede the detailed literature review with a few introductory sentences. This helps orient the reader before delving into the literature itself.
  • Literature review chapter or section in your thesis/dissertation: Every thesis and dissertation includes a literature review component, which also requires a concise introduction to set the stage for the subsequent review.

You may also like: How to write a fantastic thesis introduction (+15 examples)

It is crucial to customize the content and depth of your literature review introduction according to the specific format of your academic work.

In practical terms, this implies, for instance, that the introduction in an academic literature review paper, especially one derived from a systematic literature review , is quite comprehensive. Particularly compared to the rather brief one or two introductory sentences that are often found at the beginning of a literature review section in a standard academic paper. The introduction to the literature review chapter in a thesis or dissertation again adheres to different standards.

Here’s a structured breakdown based on length and the necessary information:

Academic literature review paper

The introduction of an academic literature review paper, which does not rely on empirical data, often necessitates a more extensive introduction than the brief literature review introductions typically found in empirical papers. It should encompass:

  • The research problem: Clearly articulate the problem or question that your literature review aims to address.
  • The research gap: Highlight the existing gaps, limitations, or unresolved aspects within the current body of literature related to the research problem.
  • The research relevance: Explain why the chosen research problem and its subsequent investigation through a literature review are significant and relevant in your academic field.
  • The literature review method: If applicable, describe the methodology employed in your literature review, especially if it is a systematic review or follows a specific research framework.
  • The main findings or insights of the literature review: Summarize the key discoveries, insights, or trends that have emerged from your comprehensive review of the literature.
  • The main argument of the literature review: Conclude the introduction by outlining the primary argument or statement that your literature review will substantiate, linking it to the research problem and relevance you’ve established.
  • Preview of the literature review’s structure: Offer a glimpse into the organization of the literature review paper, acting as a guide for the reader. This overview outlines the subsequent sections of the paper and provides an understanding of what to anticipate.

By addressing these elements, your introduction will provide a clear and structured overview of what readers can expect in your literature review paper.

Regular literature review section in an academic article or essay

Most academic articles or essays incorporate regular literature review sections, often placed after the introduction. These sections serve to establish a scholarly basis for the research or discussion within the paper.

In a standard 8000-word journal article, the literature review section typically spans between 750 and 1250 words. The first few sentences or the first paragraph within this section often serve as an introduction. It should encompass:

  • An introduction to the topic: When delving into the academic literature on a specific topic, it’s important to provide a smooth transition that aids the reader in comprehending why certain aspects will be discussed within your literature review.
  • The core argument: While literature review sections primarily synthesize the work of other scholars, they should consistently connect to your central argument. This central argument serves as the crux of your message or the key takeaway you want your readers to retain. By positioning it at the outset of the literature review section and systematically substantiating it with evidence, you not only enhance reader comprehension but also elevate overall readability. This primary argument can typically be distilled into 1-2 succinct sentences.

In some cases, you might include:

  • Methodology: Details about the methodology used, but only if your literature review employed a specialized method. If your approach involved a broader overview without a systematic methodology, you can omit this section, thereby conserving word count.

By addressing these elements, your introduction will effectively integrate your literature review into the broader context of your academic paper or essay. This will, in turn, assist your reader in seamlessly following your overarching line of argumentation.

Introduction to a literature review chapter in thesis or dissertation

The literature review typically constitutes a distinct chapter within a thesis or dissertation. Often, it is Chapter 2 of a thesis or dissertation.

Some students choose to incorporate a brief introductory section at the beginning of each chapter, including the literature review chapter. Alternatively, others opt to seamlessly integrate the introduction into the initial sentences of the literature review itself. Both approaches are acceptable, provided that you incorporate the following elements:

  • Purpose of the literature review and its relevance to the thesis/dissertation research: Explain the broader objectives of the literature review within the context of your research and how it contributes to your thesis or dissertation. Essentially, you’re telling the reader why this literature review is important and how it fits into the larger scope of your academic work.
  • Primary argument: Succinctly communicate what you aim to prove, explain, or explore through the review of existing literature. This statement helps guide the reader’s understanding of the review’s purpose and what to expect from it.
  • Preview of the literature review’s content: Provide a brief overview of the topics or themes that your literature review will cover. It’s like a roadmap for the reader, outlining the main areas of focus within the review. This preview can help the reader anticipate the structure and organization of your literature review.
  • Methodology: If your literature review involved a specific research method, such as a systematic review or meta-analysis, you should briefly describe that methodology. However, this is not always necessary, especially if your literature review is more of a narrative synthesis without a distinct research method.

By addressing these elements, your introduction will empower your literature review to play a pivotal role in your thesis or dissertation research. It will accomplish this by integrating your research into the broader academic literature and providing a solid theoretical foundation for your work.

Comprehending the art of crafting your own literature review introduction becomes significantly more accessible when you have concrete examples to examine. Here, you will find several examples that meet, or in most cases, adhere to the criteria described earlier.

Example 1: An effective introduction for an academic literature review paper

To begin, let’s delve into the introduction of an academic literature review paper. We will examine the paper “How does culture influence innovation? A systematic literature review”, which was published in 2018 in the journal Management Decision.

academic work literature review

The entire introduction spans 611 words and is divided into five paragraphs. In this introduction, the authors accomplish the following:

  • In the first paragraph, the authors introduce the broader topic of the literature review, which focuses on innovation and its significance in the context of economic competition. They underscore the importance of this topic, highlighting its relevance for both researchers and policymakers.
  • In the second paragraph, the authors narrow down their focus to emphasize the specific role of culture in relation to innovation.
  • In the third paragraph, the authors identify research gaps, noting that existing studies are often fragmented and disconnected. They then emphasize the value of conducting a systematic literature review to enhance our understanding of the topic.
  • In the fourth paragraph, the authors introduce their specific objectives and explain how their insights can benefit other researchers and business practitioners.
  • In the fifth and final paragraph, the authors provide an overview of the paper’s organization and structure.

In summary, this introduction stands as a solid example. While the authors deviate from previewing their key findings (which is a common practice at least in the social sciences), they do effectively cover all the other previously mentioned points.

Example 2: An effective introduction to a literature review section in an academic paper

The second example represents a typical academic paper, encompassing not only a literature review section but also empirical data, a case study, and other elements. We will closely examine the introduction to the literature review section in the paper “The environmentalism of the subalterns: a case study of environmental activism in Eastern Kurdistan/Rojhelat”, which was published in 2021 in the journal Local Environment.

academic work literature review

The paper begins with a general introduction and then proceeds to the literature review, designated by the authors as their conceptual framework. Of particular interest is the first paragraph of this conceptual framework, comprising 142 words across five sentences:

“ A peripheral and marginalised nationality within a multinational though-Persian dominated Iranian society, the Kurdish people of Iranian Kurdistan (a region referred by the Kurds as Rojhelat/Eastern Kurdi-stan) have since the early twentieth century been subject to multifaceted and systematic discriminatory and exclusionary state policy in Iran. This condition has left a population of 12–15 million Kurds in Iran suffering from structural inequalities, disenfranchisement and deprivation. Mismanagement of Kurdistan’s natural resources and the degradation of its natural environmental are among examples of this disenfranchisement. As asserted by Julian Agyeman (2005), structural inequalities that sustain the domination of political and economic elites often simultaneously result in environmental degradation, injustice and discrimination against subaltern communities. This study argues that the environmental struggle in Eastern Kurdistan can be asserted as a (sub)element of the Kurdish liberation movement in Iran. Conceptually this research is inspired by and has been conducted through the lens of ‘subalternity’ ” ( Hassaniyan, 2021, p. 931 ).

In this first paragraph, the author is doing the following:

  • The author contextualises the research
  • The author links the research focus to the international literature on structural inequalities
  • The author clearly presents the argument of the research
  • The author clarifies how the research is inspired by and uses the concept of ‘subalternity’.

Thus, the author successfully introduces the literature review, from which point onward it dives into the main concept (‘subalternity’) of the research, and reviews the literature on socio-economic justice and environmental degradation.

While introductions to a literature review section aren’t always required to offer the same level of study context detail as demonstrated here, this introduction serves as a commendable model for orienting the reader within the literature review. It effectively underscores the literature review’s significance within the context of the study being conducted.

Examples 3-5: Effective introductions to literature review chapters

The introduction to a literature review chapter can vary in length, depending largely on the overall length of the literature review chapter itself. For example, a master’s thesis typically features a more concise literature review, thus necessitating a shorter introduction. In contrast, a Ph.D. thesis, with its more extensive literature review, often includes a more detailed introduction.

Numerous universities offer online repositories where you can access theses and dissertations from previous years, serving as valuable sources of reference. Many of these repositories, however, may require you to log in through your university account. Nevertheless, a few open-access repositories are accessible to anyone, such as the one by the University of Manchester . It’s important to note though that copyright restrictions apply to these resources, just as they would with published papers.

Master’s thesis literature review introduction

The first example is “Benchmarking Asymmetrical Heating Models of Spider Pulsar Companions” by P. Sun, a master’s thesis completed at the University of Manchester on January 9, 2024. The author, P. Sun, introduces the literature review chapter very briefly but effectively:

academic work literature review

PhD thesis literature review chapter introduction

The second example is Deep Learning on Semi-Structured Data and its Applications to Video-Game AI, Woof, W. (Author). 31 Dec 2020, a PhD thesis completed at the University of Manchester . In Chapter 2, the author offers a comprehensive introduction to the topic in four paragraphs, with the final paragraph serving as an overview of the chapter’s structure:

academic work literature review

PhD thesis literature review introduction

The last example is the doctoral thesis Metacognitive strategies and beliefs: Child correlates and early experiences Chan, K. Y. M. (Author). 31 Dec 2020 . The author clearly conducted a systematic literature review, commencing the review section with a discussion of the methodology and approach employed in locating and analyzing the selected records.

academic work literature review

Having absorbed all of this information, let’s recap the essential steps and offer a succinct guide on how to proceed with creating your literature review introduction:

  • Contextualize your review : Begin by clearly identifying the academic context in which your literature review resides and determining the necessary information to include.
  • Outline your structure : Develop a structured outline for your literature review, highlighting the essential information you plan to incorporate in your introduction.
  • Literature review process : Conduct a rigorous literature review, reviewing and analyzing relevant sources.
  • Summarize and abstract : After completing the review, synthesize the findings and abstract key insights, trends, and knowledge gaps from the literature.
  • Craft the introduction : Write your literature review introduction with meticulous attention to the seamless integration of your review into the larger context of your work. Ensure that your introduction effectively elucidates your rationale for the chosen review topics and the underlying reasons guiding your selection.

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  • J Grad Med Educ
  • v.8(3); 2016 Jul

The Literature Review: A Foundation for High-Quality Medical Education Research

a  These are subscription resources. Researchers should check with their librarian to determine their access rights.

Despite a surge in published scholarship in medical education 1 and rapid growth in journals that publish educational research, manuscript acceptance rates continue to fall. 2 Failure to conduct a thorough, accurate, and up-to-date literature review identifying an important problem and placing the study in context is consistently identified as one of the top reasons for rejection. 3 , 4 The purpose of this editorial is to provide a road map and practical recommendations for planning a literature review. By understanding the goals of a literature review and following a few basic processes, authors can enhance both the quality of their educational research and the likelihood of publication in the Journal of Graduate Medical Education ( JGME ) and in other journals.

The Literature Review Defined

In medical education, no organization has articulated a formal definition of a literature review for a research paper; thus, a literature review can take a number of forms. Depending on the type of article, target journal, and specific topic, these forms will vary in methodology, rigor, and depth. Several organizations have published guidelines for conducting an intensive literature search intended for formal systematic reviews, both broadly (eg, PRISMA) 5 and within medical education, 6 and there are excellent commentaries to guide authors of systematic reviews. 7 , 8

  • A literature review forms the basis for high-quality medical education research and helps maximize relevance, originality, generalizability, and impact.
  • A literature review provides context, informs methodology, maximizes innovation, avoids duplicative research, and ensures that professional standards are met.
  • Literature reviews take time, are iterative, and should continue throughout the research process.
  • Researchers should maximize the use of human resources (librarians, colleagues), search tools (databases/search engines), and existing literature (related articles).
  • Keeping organized is critical.

Such work is outside the scope of this article, which focuses on literature reviews to inform reports of original medical education research. We define such a literature review as a synthetic review and summary of what is known and unknown regarding the topic of a scholarly body of work, including the current work's place within the existing knowledge . While this type of literature review may not require the intensive search processes mandated by systematic reviews, it merits a thoughtful and rigorous approach.

Purpose and Importance of the Literature Review

An understanding of the current literature is critical for all phases of a research study. Lingard 9 recently invoked the “journal-as-conversation” metaphor as a way of understanding how one's research fits into the larger medical education conversation. As she described it: “Imagine yourself joining a conversation at a social event. After you hang about eavesdropping to get the drift of what's being said (the conversational equivalent of the literature review), you join the conversation with a contribution that signals your shared interest in the topic, your knowledge of what's already been said, and your intention.” 9

The literature review helps any researcher “join the conversation” by providing context, informing methodology, identifying innovation, minimizing duplicative research, and ensuring that professional standards are met. Understanding the current literature also promotes scholarship, as proposed by Boyer, 10 by contributing to 5 of the 6 standards by which scholarly work should be evaluated. 11 Specifically, the review helps the researcher (1) articulate clear goals, (2) show evidence of adequate preparation, (3) select appropriate methods, (4) communicate relevant results, and (5) engage in reflective critique.

Failure to conduct a high-quality literature review is associated with several problems identified in the medical education literature, including studies that are repetitive, not grounded in theory, methodologically weak, and fail to expand knowledge beyond a single setting. 12 Indeed, medical education scholars complain that many studies repeat work already published and contribute little new knowledge—a likely cause of which is failure to conduct a proper literature review. 3 , 4

Likewise, studies that lack theoretical grounding or a conceptual framework make study design and interpretation difficult. 13 When theory is used in medical education studies, it is often invoked at a superficial level. As Norman 14 noted, when theory is used appropriately, it helps articulate variables that might be linked together and why, and it allows the researcher to make hypotheses and define a study's context and scope. Ultimately, a proper literature review is a first critical step toward identifying relevant conceptual frameworks.

Another problem is that many medical education studies are methodologically weak. 12 Good research requires trained investigators who can articulate relevant research questions, operationally define variables of interest, and choose the best method for specific research questions. Conducting a proper literature review helps both novice and experienced researchers select rigorous research methodologies.

Finally, many studies in medical education are “one-offs,” that is, single studies undertaken because the opportunity presented itself locally. Such studies frequently are not oriented toward progressive knowledge building and generalization to other settings. A firm grasp of the literature can encourage a programmatic approach to research.

Approaching the Literature Review

Considering these issues, journals have a responsibility to demand from authors a thoughtful synthesis of their study's position within the field, and it is the authors' responsibility to provide such a synthesis, based on a literature review. The aforementioned purposes of the literature review mandate that the review occurs throughout all phases of a study, from conception and design, to implementation and analysis, to manuscript preparation and submission.

Planning the literature review requires understanding of journal requirements, which vary greatly by journal ( table 1 ). Authors are advised to take note of common problems with reporting results of the literature review. Table 2 lists the most common problems that we have encountered as authors, reviewers, and editors.

Sample of Journals' Author Instructions for Literature Reviews Conducted as Part of Original Research Article a

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Common Problem Areas for Reporting Literature Reviews in the Context of Scholarly Articles

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Locating and Organizing the Literature

Three resources may facilitate identifying relevant literature: human resources, search tools, and related literature. As the process requires time, it is important to begin searching for literature early in the process (ie, the study design phase). Identifying and understanding relevant studies will increase the likelihood of designing a relevant, adaptable, generalizable, and novel study that is based on educational or learning theory and can maximize impact.

Human Resources

A medical librarian can help translate research interests into an effective search strategy, familiarize researchers with available information resources, provide information on organizing information, and introduce strategies for keeping current with emerging research. Often, librarians are also aware of research across their institutions and may be able to connect researchers with similar interests. Reaching out to colleagues for suggestions may help researchers quickly locate resources that would not otherwise be on their radar.

During this process, researchers will likely identify other researchers writing on aspects of their topic. Researchers should consider searching for the publications of these relevant researchers (see table 3 for search strategies). Additionally, institutional websites may include curriculum vitae of such relevant faculty with access to their entire publication record, including difficult to locate publications, such as book chapters, dissertations, and technical reports.

Strategies for Finding Related Researcher Publications in Databases and Search Engines

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Search Tools and Related Literature

Researchers will locate the majority of needed information using databases and search engines. Excellent resources are available to guide researchers in the mechanics of literature searches. 15 , 16

Because medical education research draws on a variety of disciplines, researchers should include search tools with coverage beyond medicine (eg, psychology, nursing, education, and anthropology) and that cover several publication types, such as reports, standards, conference abstracts, and book chapters (see the box for several information resources). Many search tools include options for viewing citations of selected articles. Examining cited references provides additional articles for review and a sense of the influence of the selected article on its field.

Box Information Resources

  • Web of Science a
  • Education Resource Information Center (ERIC)
  • Cumulative Index of Nursing & Allied Health (CINAHL) a
  • Google Scholar

Once relevant articles are located, it is useful to mine those articles for additional citations. One strategy is to examine references of key articles, especially review articles, for relevant citations.

Getting Organized

As the aforementioned resources will likely provide a tremendous amount of information, organization is crucial. Researchers should determine which details are most important to their study (eg, participants, setting, methods, and outcomes) and generate a strategy for keeping those details organized and accessible. Increasingly, researchers utilize digital tools, such as Evernote, to capture such information, which enables accessibility across digital workspaces and search capabilities. Use of citation managers can also be helpful as they store citations and, in some cases, can generate bibliographies ( table 4 ).

Citation Managers

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Knowing When to Say When

Researchers often ask how to know when they have located enough citations. Unfortunately, there is no magic or ideal number of citations to collect. One strategy for checking coverage of the literature is to inspect references of relevant articles. As researchers review references they will start noticing a repetition of the same articles with few new articles appearing. This can indicate that the researcher has covered the literature base on a particular topic.

Putting It All Together

In preparing to write a research paper, it is important to consider which citations to include and how they will inform the introduction and discussion sections. The “Instructions to Authors” for the targeted journal will often provide guidance on structuring the literature review (or introduction) and the number of total citations permitted for each article category. Reviewing articles of similar type published in the targeted journal can also provide guidance regarding structure and average lengths of the introduction and discussion sections.

When selecting references for the introduction consider those that illustrate core background theoretical and methodological concepts, as well as recent relevant studies. The introduction should be brief and present references not as a laundry list or narrative of available literature, but rather as a synthesized summary to provide context for the current study and to identify the gap in the literature that the study intends to fill. For the discussion, citations should be thoughtfully selected to compare and contrast the present study's findings with the current literature and to indicate how the present study moves the field forward.

To facilitate writing a literature review, journals are increasingly providing helpful features to guide authors. For example, the resources available through JGME include several articles on writing. 17 The journal Perspectives on Medical Education recently launched “The Writer's Craft,” which is intended to help medical educators improve their writing. Additionally, many institutions have writing centers that provide web-based materials on writing a literature review, and some even have writing coaches.

The literature review is a vital part of medical education research and should occur throughout the research process to help researchers design a strong study and effectively communicate study results and importance. To achieve these goals, researchers are advised to plan and execute the literature review carefully. The guidance in this editorial provides considerations and recommendations that may improve the quality of literature reviews.

International academics in national research institutes in Korea and Japan: contributions, reasons for migration, and challenges

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  • Published: 06 February 2024

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  • Yangson Kim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5078-8762 1 ,
  • Inyoung Song   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8006-5338 2 &
  • Noboru Miyoshi 3  

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This study aims to explore and compare the experiences of international academics in government-funded research institutes in Korea and Japan and focuses on their integration through primary roles and contributions, reasons to stay, and the challenges they face in their academic and daily lives. Although international academics are critical human resources in academia, their experiences in northeast Asian research institutes, instead of universities, require thorough investigation. Additionally, policy initiatives and projects in these countries tend to emphasize international academics in universities instead of those in research institutes. The study conducted semi-structured interviews between October 2020 and July 2021 with 15 international academics from government-funded research institutes in Korea and Japan. We intend to illuminate their experiences outside of universities and demonstrate that a clear academic role, a (relatively) horizontal organizational culture, and systemic support are the major reasons for their decision to stay and integrate. We also highlight the challenges they face in relation to policy, language, and family issues. International academics help create an internationalized work environment, although they frequently struggle to bridge domestic and international academia. All interviewees were male academics working in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields; thus, further studies are required to explore the experiences of female international academics and those working in other areas and to compare between the academic cultures of universities and research institutes in Korea and Japan.

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Special Session: How International Scholars Maneuver Doctoral and Early Career Obstacles in new Environments beyond Academic Walls: An Abstract

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Introduction

International academic mobility is a critical issue in the era of globalization, and one of the criteria of internationalization that are commonly used in global ranking systems and policy implementation analyses is a high proportion of international academics in higher education institutions (Altbach & Yudkevich, 2017 ). According to Rostan and Höhle ( 2014 ), the Changing Academic Profession survey revealed that approximately 42% of respondents, who hailed from 19 countries, had studied or worked away from their home country. Studies in the United States found that international faculty members made considerable contributions and performed well (Corley & Sabharwal, 2007 ; Mamiseishvili & Rosser, 2010 ). In addition, International academic mobility is associated with research excellence in European countries (Musselin, 2004 ). However, the presence of international academics in Japanese universities remains less pronounced, and they face more difficulties in humanities and social sciences than science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields (Huang et al., 2019 ). Furthermore, the expected roles of international academics in higher education are different from those of domestic academics and leaders, and the dilemma between the local language and English exists in non-English native countries (Shin & Gress, 2018 ). To date, studies on the Asian context focus on international faculty members in higher education institutions, especially universities, instead of outside of universities.

Since the 1990s, northeast Asian countries have endeavored to increase international competitiveness in higher education. Central governments have attempted to attract international academics through generously funded policy initiatives. For example, the Korean government implemented the Brain Korea, World-Class University, and Brain Pool Projects; the Japanese government initiated the Global 30 and Top Global University Projects in 2009 and 2014, respectively; lastly, the Chinese government initiated Projects 211 and 985. However, the majority of these policy initiatives and projects emphasize universities instead of research institutes. Thus, such policy initiatives emerged from an eagerness to join global higher education rankings or, at least, to avoid being left behind (Morley et al., 2021 ).

Despite institutional and governmental efforts to attract international academics to northeast Asian countries, such as Korea and Japan, retaining top international academics is typically challenging. In particular, several international academics who left Korea after staying only for short periods gave very critical news interviews (Chosun-Ilbo, 2016; Joongang, 2016). English-speaking countries are more attractive destinations for internationally mobile academics (Altbach, 2007 ; Enders & Musselin, 2008 ; Franzoni et al., 2012 ). European countries also have strong networks among member countries and offer international academics a range of opportunities within EU member states (Altbach, 2004 ; Altbach & Knight, 2007 ). In contrast, Korea lacks strong economic or social networks with other Asian countries and does not use English as a public or second language. Thus, the potential of Korea for internationalization differs from those of countries that benefit from their location, language, or social system. Language barriers in academia and in daily life increase the challenges of attracting and retaining international academics. Similarly, the differences between the academic cultures and environments of higher education systems in Korea and in western countries present further challenges.

The situation of international academics in Japan is relatively similar to that in Korea. Recently, the Japanese government stated that it would strengthen its efforts to attract and retain top international academics in research institutes outside of universities by enhancing support for the education of their children and the employment of their partners and by providing English-language research support (Cabinet Office, 2017 ). Japan is home to 39 government-funded research institutes, the majority of which are in the STEM fields. According to the 2021 list of The World’s Most Innovative Research Institutions , four of these institutes (i.e., Japan Science and Technology Agency, RIKEN, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, and National Institute for Materials Science) were among the global top 30 government-funded research institutes. Thus, national research institutes in Japan have a supportive environment in which to conduct research and development. However, Japan is not the first choice for the majority of international academics due to the language barrier and cultural differences (Huang & Daizen, 2020 ).

Despite the common belief that hiring international academics increases the recruitment of international students and produces a better quality and quantity of research, the empirical evidence for these claims is limited. Nevertheless, Korean and Japanese governments and universities have exerted enormous efforts to attract and retain international academics. The majority of previous studies have focused on international faculty members in universities instead of those in research institutes or the private sector. Moreover, studies on the roles and experiences of international academics outside of universities are few. Therefore, the current study explores the integration of international academics in government-funded research institutes with a focus on their primary roles in and contributions to institutes and the challenges they face in their academic and daily lives.

Literature review and framework

In this study, international mobility pertains to the temporary or permanent migration of science and technology personnel, particularly doctoral degree holders. Research and development (R&D), brain drain/gain, career opportunity, and skill/competence development are critical issues in a knowledge-based society, and mobility occurs in diverse directions (Mahroum, 2000 ). Highly skilled international academics are essential contributors to society. Although the definitions of highly qualified professionals and their migration are varied, the present study focuses on international academics who relocate away from the country in which they were born. Previous studies mainly explore the mobility of international academics in universities in terms of the global knowledge economy and international research networks (Douglass, 2014 ; Jacob & Meek, 2013 ) as well as the mobility of international students (Brooks & Water, 2011 ). However, studies that explore international doctorates are limited (Mihut et al., 2017 ).

Moreover, the integration of international academics lacks scholarly discussion across contexts. The environment faced by international academics as they migrate is dependent on the institution to which they belong and the position they hold; however, many previous studies focused on faculty members in universities. Alternatively, universities tend to hire international professors as a symbol of an internationalized university or to meet the criteria for the World University Rankings (Brown, 2019 ). In contrast, research institutes can be relatively free from the external pressure of rankings and the need to maintain a reputation for internationalization (Coccia, 2008 ). Instead, research institutes intend to achieve world-class academic outcomes through the recruitment of international academics (Nerdrum & Sarpebakken, 2006 ). Universities highlight three roles, namely, teaching, research, and administrative service, but place less emphasis on the role of student education in research institutions (Bozeman & Boardman, 2013 ). As administrative tasks are linked to internal politics/decision-making in universities, international professors who cannot take on administrative tasks lack bargaining power (Han, 2022 ). In addition, the difference in organizational culture between universities and research institutes in the public section is an important factor (Shea, 2008; Tierney, 1988 ). In particular, the integration of international members is interrelated with professional and social adaptation, and it is influenced by cultural differences (Jonasson et al., 2017 ). For instance, the collectivistic cultural nature of an organization based on Confucian traditions leads to difficulties for international academics in integrating into the local academic community in the East Asian context (Froese, 2010 ). Moreover, local language is a critical part of integration to communicate and interact with colleagues in host countries (Yudkevich et al., 2016 ). Chen ( 2022b ) suggests that the impeding factors of the integration of international faculty members into Japanese universities are work, cultural, and interpersonal in the internal context and the environmental dimension in the external context.

This study utilizes three perspectives to elucidate the integration of international academics in government-funded research institutes. The first is academic roles and contributions. Teaching, research, and administrative service are the traditional and broadly accepted roles of academics in higher education institutions. In general, the international backgrounds and experiences of faculty members in universities in Korea are expected to be associated with increased English usage in class, better research performance, and broader global networks. Levin and Stephan ( 1999 ) and Stephan and Levin (2001) also demonstrated that international academics are academically more productive than native academics. In addition, Libaers ( 2007 ) pointed out that this tendency is particularly strong among STEM research institutes. However, these international academics face personal, institutional, and cultural challenges (Cradden, 2007 ; Leišytė & Rose, 2016 ).

To identify the contribution of international academics to research institutes, elucidating which roles institutes require them to take is necessary. Compared with universities, the major objective of research institutes that employ international academics in STEM fields is to utilize their international networks and produce world-class research materials. Through quantitative research, recent studies have confirmed the characteristics of international academics with large international networks (Scellato et al., 2015 ): they have obtained doctoral degrees in countries apart from the one to which they immigrate. Research connections obtained prior to their migration are important for collaborative research, and these links are expandable (Meyer, 2001 ; Scellato et al., 2015 ).

However, research institutes tend to provide academics with more autonomy in their teaching roles, because these institutes intensify research, while universities emphasize advanced research-based teaching (Dusdal et al., 2020 ). In this context, internationally mobile academics may feel less under pressure, because their expected contributions are clear, or they may feel frustrated due to limited opportunities to participate in governance. This issue lacks examination in the Asian context, including Korea and Japan, due to less academic interest in international academics in research institutes compared with those in universities.

Furthermore, as human capital, international academics generate economic and material benefits that derive from international knowledge networks and pose social and intellectual benefits in the form of increased diversity, multiculturalism, and knowledge exchange (Morley et al., 2021 ). In the neoliberal context, academics with international experience can be viewed as possessing special forms of capital in their career development (Bauder et al., 2016 ); therefore, employing foreign academics is perceived as a strategy for increasing productivity and joining global networks. Also, researchers in their early careers in a competitive academic labor market seek opportunities for international experience (Kim & Kim, 2021 ).

The second approach is a perspective of migration that covers the motivation and current status of academics in their organizations. The academic culture of an institute influences whether or not members are open-minded about international members who originate from a cultural system that is not hierarchical and bureaucratic. Kim ( 2016 ) conducted a case study in the Korean context and explored limited power in decision-making processes, the senior–junior hierarchy of faculty members, feeling of isolation, lack of connection with domestic members, and the misalignment of dual professional identities within a university and an academic community. Such an academic culture is problematic for international academics and minority groups, such as junior faculty members or women (Kim & Kim, 2021 ). As a minority group in Korean academic society, international academics face invisible internal challenges that cannot be solved through policies. These challenges comprise the reasons why international academics, who have been recruited with great effort and financed by government and university funding, nonetheless, consider leaving.

Studies that focus on the migration and adaptation of international scientists take a different perspective from studies on international professors in the university context. These studies analyze the phenomenon of international academics returning to their home countries in terms of individual choices that maximize economic utility (Gaulé, 2014 ). However, investigating the case of international scientists in the East Asian context is necessary, because numerous studies in this area have been conducted in the contexts of the United States and Europe.

Finally, individual academics express personal reasons for deciding where to pursue their academic career. Within the broad concept of academic mobility, that of academics and scientists is “a process of networking and extending of one’s social space and simulated by a desire for professional socialization” (Mahroum, 2000 , p. 26). According to Baruffaldi et al. ( 2016 ), who explored international academic mobility in research institutes, personal reasons are an important motivation. Other studies demonstrated that the factors of the research environment can also influence the mobility of international academics (Siekierski et al., 2018 ).

Academic and economic factors related to job status are also critical for the decisions of doctoral graduates to go abroad or return to their home country (Auriol et al., 2013 ). Apart from professional reasons, family issues are powerful personal deciding factors. However, empirical information on why international academics in Korea move on or settle down is limited. Personal reasons related to family are potentially important, especially in Korea’s homogenous society, which is slightly internationalized and does not use English as a public language. In Japan, Huang et al. ( 2019 ) found that more than 80% of international academics from western countries had partners from Japan, and family reasons seem likely to have affected their decision to settle down.

Figure  1 presents the theoretical framework for elucidating the integration of international academics outside of universities with the three abovementioned perspectives. As the core part, their roles and contributions are the main dimension of integration in research institutes, including research, teaching, administration, service, and internationalization. Policy and governance, culture, social stability, and working conditions could be included in the environmental dimension. Personal reasons, such as family, economy, religion, and personal life goals, and values are also interrelated with their integration.

figure 1

Framework for the integration of international academics with the three perspectives

According to the objective and framework of the study, three research questions are presented. (1) How did international academics contribute and take roles in national research institutes in Korea and Japan? (2) What is the association of the social environment and academic culture with migration decisions in both countries? (3) Apart from the organizational level, what is the association between individual challenges and integration?

We invited international researchers in government-funded research institutes in Korea and Japan, but no comprehensive data are publicly available on this group. Therefore, we selected interviewees using the stratified purposive sampling strategy. The strategy describes the group to which the sample belongs and compared it with groups with other characteristics (Miles & Huberman, 1994 ). In the case of Korean, we visited the official websites of government-funded research institutes and collected the e-mail addresses of potential international academics by referring to names that differ from traditional Korean names. Although a few research institutes do not provide information about their members, we visited the websites of 53 research institutes to find contact information for international academics. An interesting finding was that we were nearly unable to find international academics in 26 of the research institutes under the National Research Council for Economics, Humanities, and Social Sciences. Four international members were in these areas at the Korean Development Institute, which tends to be regarded as a graduate school. Finally, we found 381 international academics in 11 research institutes under the National Research Council of Science Technology and two research institutes under individual government departments. Institute of Science and Technology universities and research institutes related to national defense, security, and nuclear power were excluded from the sample. In the case of Japan, we randomly selected four research institutes and contacted their international academics to invite them to participate. Although Japan has 39 government-funded research institutes, we found 348 international academics in eight institutes. Finally, eight international academics contributed to the study as interviewees. Table 1 provides details of government-funded research institutes in Korea and Japan.

Determining whether the identified international members were academics with a doctoral degree or graduate students is difficult. Therefore, we contacted the international members of project teams to avoid duplication and referred to titles, such as senior researchers, team leaders, or “Dr.” to select doctoral degree holders. The study used a stratified method to select and contact the interviewees and obtained their consent prior to the interviews through a brief information sheet and consent form that describes the purpose of the study, method of recording, use of interview data, freedom to withdraw from the study, and guarantee of anonymity. The semi-structured interviews were conducted in February and March 2021 with seven international academics from government-funded research institutes in Korea and from October 2020 to July 2021 with eight international academics from government-funded research institutes in Japan. The interviews were conducted in English, Japanese, or Korean according to the preference of the interviewees. All interview data in the Korean and Japanese languages were translated into English. Table 2 presents detailed information on the interviewees, but the names of the research institutes, disciplines, and academic ranks are excluded to protect their anonymity.

For analyses, interview data were inductively and deductively coded after transcription and translation into English, although major broad themes were selected from the literature for conducting semi-structured interviews. The data were first open-coded, then the structure among the coded concepts was created. In the first coding step, the study repeated the process of segmenting meaningful parts related to the research questions and assigning meaningful themes, while repeatedly reading the transcribed data and notes written by the researchers during the interviews. For example, role, internationalization, environment, policy, culture, language, and family emerged as prominent themes in the first stage. Afterward, in the second coding step, the study strengthened the concepts derived from the first coding step and structured the relationships between concepts and categories. Through this process, the study established the hierarchical and relational structure. For instance, the first theme is role; the researchers connected their roles with teaching (e.g., supervision, class, summer school, and seminar), research (development, technique, funding proposal, paper, and article), and administration (e.g., management, paperwork, and staff), and hierarchy was structured at this stage. In addition, the researchers utilized a data triangulation technique that collects various data apart from interview data and compares them with one another to ensure the validity of the results. Among the four types of triangulation proposed by Patton ( 2002 ), data source triangulation pertains to a method for confirming the validity of information acquired through various data sources and increasing the validity of the derived results. In addition to the interview data, we collected data, including the list of international researchers at the institution and research outcomes from the websites. The institution summarized the collected data and actively used them to verify the validity of the information obtained during the analysis process of the interview data. Moreover, the researchers mutually reviewed and provided feedback when conflicting results occurred during the data analysis or when deriving results that were unclear in meaning. The triangulation technique avoided bias due to the subjective judgment of individual researchers.

Main findings

Clear academic roles with a focus on research and teaching; contributions to internationalization.

The international academics all had clear roles in their institutes. In particular, 14 out of the 15 interviewees perceived their academic roles as mainly focusing on research or development; even the one other interviewee exhibited a strong identity as a researcher and perceived teaching as an elective role. Regardless of country, they reported that understanding their primary role and achieving what they intended to do research were easy aspects. The clear research role and aim made them more productive, because the other roles did not interrupt their research work in these institutes. Given the simple, clear expectations of their academic roles, the interviewees expressed strong satisfaction with their academic work at the institutes.

The main basic work is the R&D, research and development. The professor’s job is easy. It’s like an honorary job. (K2) I don’t have any teaching role. I just do research in [area of specialty] science … sometimes, of course, I have some Ph.D. students. I do some discussion and so on, but no teaching. (K3) I have very much a science research role. Some people in my institute perform more bureaucratic roles or administrative roles. I’m very much a pure science research person, which is actually quite unusual, I think. Most people have a lot more bureaucratic duties. I think that’s also partly because of the type of science I do. (K7) My main role is to do research and present results. (J1) I just focus on my research topic, actually. In our lab, each person has their own research topic and I am responsible for my topic, mainly. (J2)

Many international academics in universities have left Korea and Japan due to the closed academic culture and limited possibilities of obtaining high administrative and management positions. Several studies on international academics in Korean and Japanese universities have found that institutional discrimination and exclusive ethnonationalism have marked the academic cultures (Kim, 2011 , 2016 ). This notion is most easily perceived when international academics are in decision-making situations or evaluated for promotion and tenure. However, compared with universities, research institutes feature relatively low levels of oversight and advocate collaboration between researchers and students, such that the isolation and marginalization of international academics are less likely to occur, as noted by Interviewee K7.

[In University A], the hierarchical structure was stronger, which affected my interactions with my boss and also with other members of staff who wanted to interact with me. This caused a lot of complications. There was some kind of history of not being willing to let your postdoc interact with other groups. It was more group-controlled in University A than it is now in [the research institute]. (K7) From the bottom-up point of view, the hierarchy is less important because, as a foreign member of staff, when I work with students, they may be initially not quite sure how to interact with me, because they’re used to working with Korean professors. That’s a hierarchical relationship. Once they start to work with me, that quickly breaks down. Actually, this formality is not there because I’m foreign and also because I don’t want that relationship. I want a very discursive and interactive relationship with the students. (K7).

Nearly no opportunity exists for international academics in Japanese national institutes to teach classes or provide supervision for students. Only two interviewees (J1 and J3) in Japan mentioned irregular seminars or summer school programs in their institutes. They conduct research with graduate students from universities instead of provide supervision or teaching courses. A possibility exists that graduate students are recognized as research assistants who require the support of principal investigators in Korea. However, being an independent technician or researcher in Japan is more acceptable. The international academics in Japan expressed that they had no teaching burden, such that they tend to focus more on research.

Not regular teaching in classrooms. But I have, for example, several students who come from universities. They come here to do research with me, several of them. (J3) But in the research institute there are no students, so we don’t need to teach any classes. (J4) I am in a research institute, so there are no students. (J7)

The international academics in Korea were given teaching roles except for only one interviewee (K3), but the role was not much of a burden, and they enjoyed supporting and helping students. The interviewees highlighted an interesting point related to the integrated education system in Korea within government-funded research institutes. The teaching role is most relevant in the University of Science and Technology (UST), which was established in 2003 for a particular purpose, based on Article 33 of the Act on the Establishment, Operation and Fostering of Government-Funded Science and Technology Research Institutes. Academics in government-funded research institutes can be associate professors or professors at UST, in which case they need to fulfill a few requirements and conduct teaching roles based on the UST curriculum. Academics in research institute experience much less pressure related to student admission, recruitment, and curriculum development compared with those in universities. Therefore, the teaching work of international academics in research institutes, including supervision, is compatible with their major role in R&D.

I’m also a professor at UST, so I’m a group leader. Well, I have classes. Actually, one is at Korea University, and one is at UST. (K1)
The professor’s job is easy. It’s like an honorary job. We [academics in my research institute] teach our students, mainly my research institute’s students, and some courses we teach for all research institutes (common courses). [Students] choose our course and come and participate in it. (K2).
You could have no teaching load. The difference between KAIST and my institute, they used to be the same, but mine is just a [research] institute. It’s not a university, so there are technically no classes, but there’s a UST [course]. I’m a professor at UST and in order to have students from UST, I need to teach at least one class, which is fair. (K4).

International academics in non-English speaking countries are expected to develop an English-language environment and global networks. Particularly in Korea, they contribute to the education of students and training of domestic academics to create a more internationalized environment and are tasked with connecting to and expanding international academic networks through collaborative research work. They also provide added opportunities for students and domestic academics to communicate in English instead of in Korean and train them in working with academics from different backgrounds. Six out of the seven interviewees in Korea mainly used English, and only K6 communicated more frequently in Korean.

Students also make an effort with me. I also push them because they have to write their manuscripts in English, they have to make presentations in English, so they have to do it. I see that they know the language, but they’re hesitant to use it. I try to bring them out from the shy zone and to do extra work [in this regard] because I don’t have very good English, but whatever English I know, I speak it confidently. I try to express myself. (K5)

However, international academics in Japanese national institutes mainly speak Japanese or have experience using Japanese, even if they use English for research and work. Along this line, six interviewees (except for J1 and J2) used Japanese as the main language for their academic work. Moreover, international researchers publish papers or reports in Japanese with support from Japanese academics and vice versa. Nevertheless, international researchers (J2 and J3) in Japan also experience difficulty in communicating with administrative staff in English even if conducting their research in English in national research institutes is not challenging for them.

Not really. But I can collaborate with my colleagues. For example, I wrote the English version and he helped to translate it into Japanese. In this form, we can publish in Japanese. (J3)
Mainly in Japanese. However, in my project, the foreign research areas are Myanmar and Indonesia, so I also use English quite a bit. (J6).
The main language is Japanese, but if there are foreigners in the study group or people who can’t speak Japanese, it will be in English, and there are also foreign researchers who can’t speak Japanese except me, so I mainly use Japanese, but there are also people who don’t. (J8) Language problem. Although in RIKEN the official language is English, so research is no problem, but still like technical staff or research assistants, they mainly speak Japanese, so sometimes it’s hard to communicate with them. (J2)

According to the interview data, international academics in research institutes clearly recognized their roles and academic responsibilities, and they focused more on R&D compared with other teaching and service. However, international academics in Korea had an enjoyable teaching load through a unique system of the specially purposed consortium of graduate schools, which is called UST, while international academics in Japan tended to concentrate on R&D without teaching workloads. In addition, the interviewees in Korea were expected to use English to play a role in improving the internationalized environment, whereas those in Japan were expected to use Japanese to adapt well to the domestic culture.

Social stability in a rewarding research environment

The working environment is one of the critical reasons for the career and mobility of the academics (Mamiseishvili & Lee, 2018 ; Winter & Sarros, 2002 ). In the same line, four interviewees in Korea mentioned that a more autonomous working environment in terms of time management and research is a positive reason for staying in Korea and continuing their research. In particular, as mentioned by the interviewees, the institutes provide international academics with the freedom to conduct research. Interviewee K3 can spend time on his research if they have done the research projects they are required to do. Furthermore, he can manage his time on the basis of a newly introduced flexible time management policy.

I have a lot of freedom in my research. That is positive. (K1) My institute made a rule last year; now our working time has become flexible. Before, we used to start at 9:00 AM and we had to stay until 6:00 PM, but now it’s flexible, I can go anytime. (K3) This is what I expected, and I think I am getting more than I expected in terms of freedom of work. (K5) First of all, there’s a lot of freedom in research. I have work to do. If you’re doing well, you can spend the rest of your time freely. Yes, so I’m just doing a [specific research topic] study, doing good data evaluation, doing analysis, and the rest of my time, I’m doing [specific academic area] science. That’s it. (K6)

Moreover, although the majority of faculty members in universities expressed challenges in attaining competitive research funding from governments (Shin et al., 2020 , 2021 ), the seven researchers in government-funded research institutes in Korea are under less pressure regarding the search for research funding compared with faculty members in universities. Moreover, two interviewees in Japan cited generous research funding compared with other contexts. Thus, the international academics are satisfied with the funding and support mechanisms from the outset, because government-funded research institutes have stable sources of funding given that the national projects continue.

In terms of funding, we have quite good funding. We have several projects in our division and I usually work on those projects. I’m assigned some specific roles, like processing the data or interpreting of papers. That’s pretty good. Yes, funding-wise, it’s quite good. (K3) There are many reasons [I came here]. One of them was the resources here. They did offer a very good startup package to come here. (K4) I can do good research here. And when I was looking for jobs, I saw many job openings here. That means we have lots of funding here, too. (J4) Since we are a research institute, the institute receives a fixed budget every year. Our job is to gather professors from universities in Japan and all over the country for research. Therefore, we can all receive a generous budget without applying for a (external) scientific research grant. (J7) To recognize it as a project of the Institute, you must do something unique like that. You have to do things that other university professors can’t do. Because it’s a big budget, more than 3 million JPY. If it was B, it would be 5 million JPY. We do it with tens of millions of dollars, so we do cutting-edge things that universities can’t do. Do something novel. That’s what I’m trying to focus on the most. (J7)

In addition to institutional support with stable research funds and guaranteed autonomy, international academics in government-funded research institutes gain a strong impression of the Korean society. Interviewee K4 mentioned the novelty of his experiences when he first visited or joined a conference in Korea. The international academics not only spoke highly of the environment of research institutes and academic society but also shared positive impressions of the overall energy and vitality of Korean society.

When I visited for the interview, I was really struck by the energy here. It was palpable. The places I’ve been in the United States are very good, but I really noticed the strong energy level here in Korea. That was kind of, “Oh, I am going to do this.” Then, the rest of it was working up the courage actually to do the transfer to Asia. (K4) I do get a chance to learn new things, learn new techniques. Actually, over time, I realized that there’s so much that I can learn. The best thing about Korea is that they have a strong work culture and they’re very much into when they’re working, they’re working hard, which I learned. (K5)

In contrast, international academics in Japan emphasized its stable environment as a developed country. Academics from developing or emerging countries in Asia compared it favorably with the academic and social environments of their original countries. According to the four interviewees in Japan, stability included the physical research environment and their daily lives. The support they received helped them concentrate on their work, which made opting to stay in Japan easy for international academics who wanted a sense of stability and quality of life.

Yes, the current workplace is a suitable and stable condition for me. I worked in the institute in China. You know, China is now changing very fast. But in that rapidly changing environment, it is quite difficult to be left in peace to do a scientific study. So, you have to keep alert to everything. This has scattered a lot of the concentration I need to do research. But here, it’s a developed environment. So almost everything becomes very stable, so then I can concentrate on my studies. This is what I mean by stable and stability. (J3) I think that maybe one of the things is that you can think and do research in a free environment. Not only in Laos but also in Southeast Asia, for example, there are people who came to Japan because even Thai professors could not do decent research under the military regime, but if you are researching not only in Japan but also in developed countries, you are allowed to think freely. Also, I would say that a former classmate here works in Western Europe, and I have other friends who work in other countries, Europe, France, and England, but compared to them, it is a small sample, but it is a little stable, I think there is a stable employment relationship. (J8) But other things, the environment, I think, is quite good compared to the US for international researchers, like people treat international researchers especially, like we are supported. And like we have international housing, so you come abroad, you can rent a house inside the research institute, that’s provided only for international researchers. (J4)

As Sakurai and Mason ( 2023 ) proposed, the working environment in the sense of workload control, support structure, and collegiality are critical factors of the intention of international academics to stay. This notion is also evident among international academics in public research institutes. In particular, the freedom to manage one’s research and time and the generous research funding environment are critical reasons in the decision of the interviewees about their destination countries. In addition, the stable research and social environments provide them with long-term research and enjoyable daily lives in both countries.

Policy versus culture: Different challenges in Korea and Japan

Although international academics reported positive experiences, they also faced challenges and barriers at work. In particular, they understood how policy works in Korean academic society and its limitations. Although obtaining funding to conduct research is easier for them compared with academics in universities, two interviewees in Korea also worried about short-term policy-driven research projects.

I think the biggest negative is not appreciating how short-term things can be. The World-Class Institutes was only a five-year program, and I didn’t really think about that too much. I was just so happy to have the chance to start a lab that I didn’t really think too much about what’s going to happen in five years or what’s going to happen in ten years. It turns out neither had Korea [laughs] and so these policies that they try, and then if you don’t get a return rather quickly, they’re done, and you can see the ghosts of programs past in different areas. Even at my institute, I see this department no longer exists, and that department no longer exists. (K4) It’s a little bit of a problem to do research quickly. I’m glad I moved—I haven’t had that kind of experience. And the sudden disappearance of research projects with every presidential election, I think that’s a big problem. (K6)

Political issues have influenced many policy initiatives in Korea, and funding distribution can be based on internal politics or nontransparent decision-making processes instead of definite and transparent empirical evidence. Therefore, maintaining policies over the long term are difficult, and they may change with the changes in government. Academics have criticized the short-term policy initiatives of bureaucrats, particularly in the Korean context, in which a robust government-centered orientation exists. Although the international academics were mainly satisfied with the relatively comfortable research funding, the limited short-term policies of the government countered this aspect. In addition, international academics could feel isolated when they attempt to seek for Korean colleagues for collaboration, and they could experience the insularity of an academic culture that is based on the universities from which their Korean colleagues graduated.

I’m quite isolated, I think. I now have a very good partner with whom I’ve been collaborating for several years, but it’s very difficult to find someone who’s willing to work with foreigners because of the language—everything is inconvenient. I feel it’s very difficult to collaborate in Korea. (K1) Group-focused. In my research institute, it’s not quite so strong, but I think you still have to be aware of this mentality. It’s a little bit different. In the institute, it’s interesting that everybody comes from different universities: Yonsei University, Korea University, Seoul National University. Actually, that mentality is even stronger. Which group you originally came from plays a role in who you interact with and how you interact with people in the institute. (K7)

In contrast, international academics in Japanese national research institutes rarely pointed to policy and political issues. Instead, half of them spoke of the acceptance of cultural differences in Japan. Interviewee J5 mentioned the uniqueness of Japanese culture and society and the expectation that international researchers would take on a similar role to Japanese researchers. In particular, they respected the hard-working environment but found themselves isolated in institutes. Therefore, understanding and being accustomed to Japanese culture is critical for succeeding in research institutes in Japan. A few of the interviewees expressed that adjusting to the culture is easy, because they went to graduate school at a Japanese university and have been living there for a long time.

I think Japan is very different from many other countries and they have a very strong culture. And knowing those cultural differences is very important, I think. (J5) I think Japanese people tend to concentrate on their work; it’s hard to find time to talk to each other, so in the lab, it’s always very silent all the time. (J2) Even I think from my observation, Japanese colleagues are also isolated from each other. This is the environment. I think it’s the culture. (J3). The master’s program is at [a university in Japan] and the doctoral course is at [another university in Japan]. (J7) I came to Japan when I was 19 years old, and I have been in Japan for almost all my life, so I don’t have any experience [studying abroad]. (J8) To be honest, in my case, my master’s degree and doctorate were in Japan, so I am probably used to Japanese culture. (J5)

Although generalizing all the cases of the international academics in national research institutes using only the limited number of interviews is difficult, the interviewees from both countries clearly demonstrated differences in policy and cultural issues. The international academics from both countries perceived barriers to collaboration, but the actual pattern was different. Although international academics in Korea feel alienated from a solid network based on the universities of the Korean scholars, international academics in Japan face difficulty due to the high levels of cultural understanding and language skills required to adapt to the Japanese academia. In a study international mobile academics, Bauder ( 2020 ) pointed out that the connection between global mobility and social capital features diverse aspects. The interviewees have experienced challenges when they were unable to contribute to bridging between domestic and international colleagues.

Continued challenges: Language barriers and family issues

Regardless of the use of English as a lingua franca, the interviewees stated that they endeavor to overcome difficulties in work situations through the administrative staff and colleagues in their teams. However, the language issue is always a major challenge for international academics regardless of whether their organization is a university or a research institute. In particular, although using the Korean language in the workplace voluntary, the seven interviewees felt that learning Korean affords them with better opportunities for acquiring research funding and for collaboration with domestic colleagues. As certain research funds require that proposals be in Korean, international academics who lack Korean language skills cannot be involved in large funding projects. Moreover, the eight interviewees in Japan could speak Japanese out of which six have achieved advanced levels of the local language through their education and long-term stay in Japan. The majority of interviewees in Japan agree that integrating into institutes is difficult if one is unable to use the Japanese language.

The only problem is that if you need to apply for research funding here, you need to write a proposal in the Korean language, not in English. That is the difficulty here; English projects get a very small amount, a small budget. If you are able to write a funding proposal in Korean, and you are able to present a subject in the Korean language, you can get access to the mega-project funding. (K2) If there’s anything that could be a problem, [it is that] everything is done in Korean, so if foreigners want to come to the institute and work as full-time employees, they need to know Hangul well. I think that part is difficult for foreigners. But there’s nothing they can do about it. For foreigners who come to Korea, if you want to work well with Korean colleagues at a research institute in Korea, you need to communicate well. I think they should study Korean first and then take the job. (K6)

Family is also an important consideration when deciding to move to another research institute or country, according to six interviewees each in Korea and Japan. Interviewees K1 and K3 stated that they selected Korea as a destination country for family reasons, but K2 and K7 mentioned that their family members encountered challenges with language or visa status. Moreover, finding jobs, operating their own businesses with family members, or sending the children to local schools are complex tasks for the partners of international academics. In a number of cases, the partners of the interviewees experienced difficulty in starting their businesses in Korea or landing an academic job due to their visa status. In addition, living in Japan presented similar challenges related to education for the children and the health issues of family members. The difficult situation of the education of the children is similar for international academics in Japan according to Interviewee J1. Lastly, J2 and J4 considered the possibility of staying or moving back to their home countries due to their family members.

Of course, my wife is Korean, so that was one reason why I was initially interested in coming here. (K1) First of all, my wife was working at the same research institute at that time. She also did her Ph.D. and master’s at the same university, but she stayed in Korea. She was living in Korea and then I moved from Germany. Then after five years, there was a position and I applied. The primary reason was that my wife was here, so we could be together again. (K3) I have only one problem here [and that is] English-language schools for my kids. I have a family. I have two kids. My kids stayed with me until 2016. In 2016, my eldest son went to a school in India. He was a seven-year-old at that time. Now, he’s a 12-year-old boy. In 2019, my second kid and my wife also moved to India. They both are studying in India. At least up to high school, they should study in India. Then, my plan is after graduation, I will bring them back to Korea and try to join a SKY university. (K2) Actually, moving abroad might be more suitable for [my wife] if we could work in a country where [they speak either English or Spanish]; she speaks both Spanish and English very well. She’s learning Korean, but it’s not easy. It’s very difficult to reach the level of Korean where you could really be out in the market doing any job. That’s not easy. Also, there are visa restrictions. She would have to get a job with a contract to be able to [get a work visa], so she couldn’t set up her own business, for example. There are limitations, basically, on what she can do. Without that contract, she can’t get a work visa. She has a PhD in astronomy herself and she has a wide range of interests. That’s one reason that we would be thinking of looking abroad as well, in addition to the possibilities for me in the future. (K7) One downside to living in Japan could be issues about kids. For example, I want my kids to speak the Arabic language, my native language. But so far, my sons don’t speak Arabic. This makes me think seriously about finding an Arabic country where I can work. Also, our salary is not so high that we can afford international schools or that type of support. Yes, it’s a difficult balance. (J1) Now his [the interviewee’s father] condition is okay, but I think it’s time for my family to move back to Taiwan. That is the main reason. The second reason may be partially due to COVID-19. I feel Taiwan seems safer than Japan. (J2) But if she [partner] wants to go back to China, then I have to really consider that. But if I’m just alone, I would be okay staying here. (J4)

As discussed by previous studies, the language issue is relatively critical for international academics, particularly non-native English-speaking countries (Brotherhood et al., 2020 ; Froese, 2012 ; Li & Xue, 2021 ) regardless of university or research institutes. In addition, family is another influential reason for the choice of destination countries in which to stay and work (Froese, 2012 ; Gress & Ilon, 2009 ; Larbi & Ashraf, 2020 ). Although governments and institutes have endeavored to attract and retain international academics in Korea and Japan through policy initiatives at the macro level, other reasons at the micro level, which cannot be solved only with the policy or system, lack serious considerations.

From the three perspectives based on their integration, the study described three discussion points with the findings from the interviews with international academics in national research institutes in Korea and Japan. Although the three theoretical perspectives could not be perfectly separated but be interrelated, we discussed the meaningful points raised by the findings on the (1) major roles and contributions, (2) social stability and academic culture, and (3) personal challenges and issues beyond societal and organizational levels.

In relation to roles and contributions, international academics in government-funded research institutes are generally satisfied with their jobs and roles in Korea and Japan. Their well-defined research roles afford them autonomy over their personal research. Although international academics in universities expect to engage in diverse roles, including governance, the different perceptions of domestic and international staff regarding their roles in universities frequently lead to conflicts about how they are valued (Brotherhood et al., 2020 ). In the case of Korea, at the UST, these academics can decide whether or not to engage in student supervision, while those in Japan are not given teaching duties. However, various factors continue to hinder them from performing their roles in institutions.

Considering the contribution of international academics in research institutes to the internationalization of their organizations is important. Despite limited evidence that international academics are more productive, the Korean government implemented policies at the national level to attract international academics on the basis of the belief that their contributions could enhance the research quality and capacity of Korean academia. International academics may not always be more productive than domestic academics outside of the west (Kuzhabekova & Lee, 2017 ; Shin & Gress, 2018 ). However, scholars clearly demonstrated that international academics provide more opportunities to use and practice English as the main language of academic communication (Altbach, 2015 ). As the academic society in Korea is unfamiliar with using English in the domestic context, international academics expose students and domestic academics to English and thus create a more global environment. However, their ability to fulfill the role of bridging between domestic and international academia has been limited, because they face challenges in finding Korean academics who are willing to collaborate.

The Japanese academic community more strongly emphasizes integration and adaptation into its academic community. International academics in Japan are expected to increase the use of English in the workplace and create an international research environment; in addition, they are required to acquire high-level Japanese language skills and to adapt to Japanese organizational culture (Brotherhood et al., 2020 ; Chen, 2022a , 2022b ; Huang et al., 2019 ). This emphasis is reflected in the tendency of institutions to favor international academics with Japanese doctoral degrees. Although the same achievements are required, the new finding of the current study is the contradiction between the emphases of the Japanese academic community on the connection with Japan and that of the Korean academic community on connection with overseas academic communities. Understanding the contextual difference between Japan and Korea in terms of their perspectives of highly educated human resources is possible. The number of doctoral degree holders has dramatically increased, including international degrees in Korea, while it has continuously decreased in Japan since the early 2000s. Therefore, the reasons for the recruitment of international academics differ according to situation: that is, to replace domestic human resources or to increase global competitiveness through international networks.

Therefore, the contribution of international academics to government-funded institutes by expanding global networks has focused on their international collaborations instead of providing added opportunities for Korean academics to participate in international collaboration. If international academics are isolated from domestic academics and collaborate only with those abroad, then they cannot help academics in Korea to connect with those abroad. Therefore, identifying and analyzing the factors that hinder collaboration between domestic and international academics in research institutes is crucial.

From the migration and integration perspectives, previous studies illustrated that international academics were marginalized due to the language barrier in universities (Brotherhood et al., 2020 ; Froese, 2012 ; Li & Xue, 2021 ), and which was confirmed by the interviewees. Disagreeing that language is a critical problem that leads to the marginalization of international academics in the Korean and Japanese academic contexts is difficult. As local language proficiency is not mandatorily required, and the expected language level is diverse according to disciplines in university (Lee, 2020 ), the language issue is equivocal in government-funded research institutes in the STEM field for the integration of international academics. However, this issue remains a difficult one in Korea and Japan as non-English-speaking countries regardless of the type of organization. Moreover, we found that the closed culture of Korean academic organizations is a barrier for international academics apart from language issues. Interviewee G shared his experiences of working in a university and in his current research institute. At the university, he encountered difficulties in co-working with students with different majors under the strongly hierarchical structure. Furthermore, the interviewee experienced limitations in collaboration due to seniority issues in the authoritarian organizational culture of the university. Alternatively, he perceived the organizational culture of the research institute to be more open to collaboration with students, because the relationship between seniors and professors in lab-based research units is much more horizontal and open. Moreover, more space exists for international academics to collaborate and interact equally despite the group culture based on one’s alma mater. Many international academics have left Korean universities after their negative experiences with their organizational culture, but the more open and horizontal collaborative culture of the research institutes suggests one method for attracting international academics.

Bauder ( 2020 ) demonstrated the multi-dimensionality of the social capital of international academics according to global mobility. In addition, the current study emphasized that changes in the social capital of international academics are dependent on which roles are desired of them by institutions in the destination countries. In particular, differences exist in the major role required for international academics in Korea and Japan. International academics in Korea are expected to connect with international research networks (Shin & Gress, 2018 ), while those in Japan are expected to adapt to domestic academia with Japanese proficiency. In other words, international mobility does not consistently foster or reduce the social capital of international academics. Nevertheless, social capital is dependent on the role of international academics in institutions. In addition, it is associated with the decision of international academics to promote further development, to use personal networks, or to focus on creating new domestic networks in the country of immigration.

The last point is related to top-down policy initiatives instead of integrating with personal reasons and priorities. Clearly, these initiatives for recruiting international academics have led to a quantitative increase in their numbers in Korea. As a vibrant case of internationalization, Switzerland provides a good example of a competitive and attractive place for international academics due to its high-level of inbound mobility and international recruitment as well as incentives and financial support for early-career researchers who graduated with a PhD in Switzerland (Bataille et al., 2017 ; Sautier, 2021 ). In Korea, after the first appointment step, a long-term plan and support system to encourage international academics to participate and work actively in academic society are required. The depth of integration and meaningful engagement, which are influenced by the duration of stay, can facilitate the transfer of certain types of knowledge (Coey, 2018 ). In addition, personal and cultural benefits may influence the decisions of international academics to work and live in Korea and Japan apart from professional reasons. However, individual motivations and family issues are rarely considered at the policy level despite their importance to potential international academics (Coey, 2018 ). International academics in Japanese national institutes also experience many cultural differences. A few interviewees were well adjusted to these cultural differences, because they were educated in Japan, but they worried that international academics who are unfamiliar with Japanese culture would experience difficulties. Therefore, addressing the possibility that international academics will pass through institutes instead of being integrated into society is necessary. Further studies should consider potential long-term policies for integrating academics within the cultural context.

This study explored the experiences and integration of international academics in government-funded research institutes in Korea and Japan though their roles and contribution, motivation to stay, and challenges in the environmental and individual dimensions. Although international academics are critical human resources in academic society (Kim, 2017 ), their experiences outside of universities lack thorough investigation in Korea or Japan. Therefore, we describe their current status and provide suggestions for attracting international academics by leveraging the unique characteristics of government-funded research institutes.

We provide information about the integration of international academics at national research institutes in Korea and Japan and illustrate that a clear academic role, horizontal organizational culture, and systemic support are important factors for them to stay. We also highlight the challenges they experience in relation to policy, culture, language, and family issues. International academics help create an international working environment, although they frequently face difficulty in bridging between domestic and international academia. The interviewees also expressed relatively positive views on the prospects of increasing the number of inbound international academics after the COVID-19 pandemic.

Despite contributing to the understanding of international academics outside of universities, this study has its limitations. In a certain sense, the interviewees were examples of successful adaptation to the structures of their institutions. Therefore, their responses tended to be more positive than they would have if they had failed to settle. In addition, this study recruited only 15 interviewees from different academic disciplines and research institutes and with different doctoral degrees. Given the limited information available on international academics outside of universities, the number of interviewees was small, which may be unable to reflect the overall situation. The 15 interviewees were male due to the small number of female international academics, and none of them responded to the invitation to participate. Although female academics tend to be less mobile compared with male academics, and family issues are critical for them in making decisions about their academic careers (Sautier, 2021 ), this aspect was a critical limitation. The higher proportion of male international academics in Korea and Japan is not only the result of a recruitment preference for males but also due to male dominance in the STEM fields. For this reason, further studies are required to explore the experiences of female international academics and to compare the academic cultures of universities and research institutes in the Korean and Japanese academic contexts.

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by financial assistance from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)—funding numbers: 19H01640 and 20K13906.

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Ethics approval was not required for this study because Institutional Research Board (IRB) in the affiliated university in Japan was formed after starting the study. However, the authors have confirmed that we followed the procedure faithfully according to “Guidelines on Research Focusing on Humans at Hiroshima University Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences.” We provided detailed information and rights of participants of the study and had verbal consent from all interviewees before having interviews. They agreed to use recording interview data anonymously for academic purposes, including articles, books, presentations, and publications. International academics in national research institutes in Korea and Japan: contributions, reasons for migration, and challenges.

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Kim, Y., Song, I. & Miyoshi, N. International academics in national research institutes in Korea and Japan: contributions, reasons for migration, and challenges. Asia Pacific Educ. Rev. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09925-w

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Received : 18 November 2022

Revised : 20 December 2023

Accepted : 03 January 2024

Published : 06 February 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09925-w

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