case study meaning merriam

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Case Study in Education Research

Introduction, general overview and foundational texts of the late 20th century.

• Conceptualisations and Definitions of Case Study
• Case Study and Theoretical Grounding
• Choosing Cases
• Methodology, Method, Genre, or Approach
• Case Study: Quality and Generalizability
• Multiple Case Studies
• Exemplary Case Studies and Example Case Studies
• Criticism, Defense, and Debate around Case Study

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Case Study in Education Research by Lorna Hamilton LAST REVIEWED: 21 April 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 27 June 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0201

It is important to distinguish between case study as a teaching methodology and case study as an approach, genre, or method in educational research. The use of case study as teaching method highlights the ways in which the essential qualities of the case—richness of real-world data and lived experiences—can help learners gain insights into a different world and can bring learning to life. The use of case study in this way has been around for about a hundred years or more. Case study use in educational research, meanwhile, emerged particularly strongly in the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom and the United States as a means of harnessing the richness and depth of understanding of individuals, groups, and institutions; their beliefs and perceptions; their interactions; and their challenges and issues. Writers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, advocated the use of case study as a form that teacher-researchers could use as they focused on the richness and intensity of their own practices. In addition, academic writers and postgraduate students embraced case study as a means of providing structure and depth to educational projects. However, as educational research has developed, so has debate on the quality and usefulness of case study as well as the problems surrounding the lack of generalizability when dealing with single or even multiple cases. The question of how to define and support case study work has formed the basis for innumerable books and discursive articles, starting with Robert Yin’s original book on case study ( Yin 1984 , cited under General Overview and Foundational Texts of the Late 20th Century ) to the myriad authors who attempt to bring something new to the realm of case study in educational research in the 21st century.

This section briefly considers the ways in which case study research has developed over the last forty to fifty years in educational research usage and reflects on whether the field has finally come of age, respected by creators and consumers of research. Case study has its roots in anthropological studies in which a strong ethnographic approach to the study of peoples and culture encouraged researchers to identify and investigate key individuals and groups by trying to understand the lived world of such people from their points of view. Although ethnography has emphasized the role of researcher as immersive and engaged with the lived world of participants via participant observation, evolving approaches to case study in education has been about the richness and depth of understanding that can be gained through involvement in the case by drawing on diverse perspectives and diverse forms of data collection. Embracing case study as a means of entering these lived worlds in educational research projects, was encouraged in the 1970s and 1980s by researchers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, who provided a helpful impetus for case study work in education ( Stenhouse 1980 ). Stenhouse wrestled with the use of case study as ethnography because ethnographers traditionally had been unfamiliar with the peoples they were investigating, whereas educational researchers often worked in situations that were inherently familiar. Stenhouse also emphasized the need for evidence of rigorous processes and decisions in order to encourage robust practice and accountability to the wider field by allowing others to judge the quality of work through transparency of processes. Yin 1984 , the first book focused wholly on case study in research, gave a brief and basic outline of case study and associated practices. Various authors followed this approach, striving to engage more deeply in the significance of case study in the social sciences. Key among these are Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 , along with Yin 1984 , who established powerful groundings for case study work. Additionally, evidence of the increasing popularity of case study can be found in a broad range of generic research methods texts, but these often do not have much scope for the extensive discussion of case study found in case study–specific books. Yin’s books and numerous editions provide a developing or evolving notion of case study with more detailed accounts of the possible purposes of case study, followed by Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 who wrestled with alternative ways of looking at purposes and the positioning of case study within potential disciplinary modes. The authors referenced in this section are often characterized as the foundational authors on this subject and may have published various editions of their work, cited elsewhere in this article, based on their shifting ideas or emphases.

Merriam, S. B. 1988. Case study research in education: A qualitative approach . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This is Merriam’s initial text on case study and is eminently accessible. The author establishes and reinforces various key features of case study; demonstrates support for positioning the case within a subject domain, e.g., psychology, sociology, etc.; and further shapes the case according to its purpose or intent.

Stake, R. E. 1995. The art of case study research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Stake is a very readable author, accessible and yet engaging with complex topics. The author establishes his key forms of case study: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Stake brings the reader through the process of conceptualizing the case, carrying it out, and analyzing the data. The author uses authentic examples to help readers understand and appreciate the nuances of an interpretive approach to case study.

Stenhouse, L. 1980. The study of samples and the study of cases. British Educational Research Journal 6:1–6.

DOI: 10.1080/0141192800060101

A key article in which Stenhouse sets out his stand on case study work. Those interested in the evolution of case study use in educational research should consider this article and the insights given.

Yin, R. K. 1984. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . Beverley Hills, CA: SAGE.

This preliminary text from Yin was very basic. However, it may be of interest in comparison with later books because Yin shows the ways in which case study as an approach or method in research has evolved in relation to detailed discussions of purpose, as well as the practicalities of working through the research process.

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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
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Continuing to enhance the quality of case study methodology in health services research

Shannon l. sibbald.

1 Faculty of Health Sciences, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.

2 Department of Family Medicine, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.

3 The Schulich Interfaculty Program in Public Health, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.

Stefan Paciocco

Meghan fournie, rachelle van asseldonk, tiffany scurr.

Case study methodology has grown in popularity within Health Services Research (HSR). However, its use and merit as a methodology are frequently criticized due to its flexible approach and inconsistent application. Nevertheless, case study methodology is well suited to HSR because it can track and examine complex relationships, contexts, and systems as they evolve. Applied appropriately, it can help generate information on how multiple forms of knowledge come together to inform decision-making within healthcare contexts. In this article, we aim to demystify case study methodology by outlining its philosophical underpinnings and three foundational approaches. We provide literature-based guidance to decision-makers, policy-makers, and health leaders on how to engage in and critically appraise case study design. We advocate that researchers work in collaboration with health leaders to detail their research process with an aim of strengthening the validity and integrity of case study for its continued and advanced use in HSR.

Introduction

The popularity of case study research methodology in Health Services Research (HSR) has grown over the past 40 years. 1 This may be attributed to a shift towards the use of implementation research and a newfound appreciation of contextual factors affecting the uptake of evidence-based interventions within diverse settings. 2 Incorporating context-specific information on the delivery and implementation of programs can increase the likelihood of success. 3 , 4 Case study methodology is particularly well suited for implementation research in health services because it can provide insight into the nuances of diverse contexts. 5 , 6 In 1999, Yin 7 published a paper on how to enhance the quality of case study in HSR, which was foundational for the emergence of case study in this field. Yin 7 maintains case study is an appropriate methodology in HSR because health systems are constantly evolving, and the multiple affiliations and diverse motivations are difficult to track and understand with traditional linear methodologies.

Despite its increased popularity, there is debate whether a case study is a methodology (ie, a principle or process that guides research) or a method (ie, a tool to answer research questions). Some criticize case study for its high level of flexibility, perceiving it as less rigorous, and maintain that it generates inadequate results. 8 Others have noted issues with quality and consistency in how case studies are conducted and reported. 9 Reporting is often varied and inconsistent, using a mix of approaches such as case reports, case findings, and/or case study. Authors sometimes use incongruent methods of data collection and analysis or use the case study as a default when other methodologies do not fit. 9 , 10 Despite these criticisms, case study methodology is becoming more common as a viable approach for HSR. 11 An abundance of articles and textbooks are available to guide researchers through case study research, including field-specific resources for business, 12 , 13 nursing, 14 and family medicine. 15 However, there remains confusion and a lack of clarity on the key tenets of case study methodology.

Several common philosophical underpinnings have contributed to the development of case study research 1 which has led to different approaches to planning, data collection, and analysis. This presents challenges in assessing quality and rigour for researchers conducting case studies and stakeholders reading results.

This article discusses the various approaches and philosophical underpinnings to case study methodology. Our goal is to explain it in a way that provides guidance for decision-makers, policy-makers, and health leaders on how to understand, critically appraise, and engage in case study research and design, as such guidance is largely absent in the literature. This article is by no means exhaustive or authoritative. Instead, we aim to provide guidance and encourage dialogue around case study methodology, facilitating critical thinking around the variety of approaches and ways quality and rigour can be bolstered for its use within HSR.

Purpose of case study methodology

Case study methodology is often used to develop an in-depth, holistic understanding of a specific phenomenon within a specified context. 11 It focuses on studying one or multiple cases over time and uses an in-depth analysis of multiple information sources. 16 , 17 It is ideal for situations including, but not limited to, exploring under-researched and real-life phenomena, 18 especially when the contexts are complex and the researcher has little control over the phenomena. 19 , 20 Case studies can be useful when researchers want to understand how interventions are implemented in different contexts, and how context shapes the phenomenon of interest.

In addition to demonstrating coherency with the type of questions case study is suited to answer, there are four key tenets to case study methodologies: (1) be transparent in the paradigmatic and theoretical perspectives influencing study design; (2) clearly define the case and phenomenon of interest; (3) clearly define and justify the type of case study design; and (4) use multiple data collection sources and analysis methods to present the findings in ways that are consistent with the methodology and the study’s paradigmatic base. 9 , 16 The goal is to appropriately match the methods to empirical questions and issues and not to universally advocate any single approach for all problems. 21

Approaches to case study methodology

Three authors propose distinct foundational approaches to case study methodology positioned within different paradigms: Yin, 19 , 22 Stake, 5 , 23 and Merriam 24 , 25 ( Table 1 ). Yin is strongly post-positivist whereas Stake and Merriam are grounded in a constructivist paradigm. Researchers should locate their research within a paradigm that explains the philosophies guiding their research 26 and adhere to the underlying paradigmatic assumptions and key tenets of the appropriate author’s methodology. This will enhance the consistency and coherency of the methods and findings. However, researchers often do not report their paradigmatic position, nor do they adhere to one approach. 9 Although deliberately blending methodologies may be defensible and methodologically appropriate, more often it is done in an ad hoc and haphazard way, without consideration for limitations.

Cross-analysis of three case study approaches, adapted from Yazan 2015

The post-positive paradigm postulates there is one reality that can be objectively described and understood by “bracketing” oneself from the research to remove prejudice or bias. 27 Yin focuses on general explanation and prediction, emphasizing the formulation of propositions, akin to hypothesis testing. This approach is best suited for structured and objective data collection 9 , 11 and is often used for mixed-method studies.

Constructivism assumes that the phenomenon of interest is constructed and influenced by local contexts, including the interaction between researchers, individuals, and their environment. 27 It acknowledges multiple interpretations of reality 24 constructed within the context by the researcher and participants which are unlikely to be replicated, should either change. 5 , 20 Stake and Merriam’s constructivist approaches emphasize a story-like rendering of a problem and an iterative process of constructing the case study. 7 This stance values researcher reflexivity and transparency, 28 acknowledging how researchers’ experiences and disciplinary lenses influence their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of the phenomenon and development of the findings.

Defining a case

A key tenet of case study methodology often underemphasized in literature is the importance of defining the case and phenomenon. Researches should clearly describe the case with sufficient detail to allow readers to fully understand the setting and context and determine applicability. Trying to answer a question that is too broad often leads to an unclear definition of the case and phenomenon. 20 Cases should therefore be bound by time and place to ensure rigor and feasibility. 6

Yin 22 defines a case as “a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context,” (p13) which may contain a single unit of analysis, including individuals, programs, corporations, or clinics 29 (holistic), or be broken into sub-units of analysis, such as projects, meetings, roles, or locations within the case (embedded). 30 Merriam 24 and Stake 5 similarly define a case as a single unit studied within a bounded system. Stake 5 , 23 suggests bounding cases by contexts and experiences where the phenomenon of interest can be a program, process, or experience. However, the line between the case and phenomenon can become muddy. For guidance, Stake 5 , 23 describes the case as the noun or entity and the phenomenon of interest as the verb, functioning, or activity of the case.

Designing the case study approach

Yin’s approach to a case study is rooted in a formal proposition or theory which guides the case and is used to test the outcome. 1 Stake 5 advocates for a flexible design and explicitly states that data collection and analysis may commence at any point. Merriam’s 24 approach blends both Yin and Stake’s, allowing the necessary flexibility in data collection and analysis to meet the needs.

Yin 30 proposed three types of case study approaches—descriptive, explanatory, and exploratory. Each can be designed around single or multiple cases, creating six basic case study methodologies. Descriptive studies provide a rich description of the phenomenon within its context, which can be helpful in developing theories. To test a theory or determine cause and effect relationships, researchers can use an explanatory design. An exploratory model is typically used in the pilot-test phase to develop propositions (eg, Sibbald et al. 31 used this approach to explore interprofessional network complexity). Despite having distinct characteristics, the boundaries between case study types are flexible with significant overlap. 30 Each has five key components: (1) research question; (2) proposition; (3) unit of analysis; (4) logical linking that connects the theory with proposition; and (5) criteria for analyzing findings.

Contrary to Yin, Stake 5 believes the research process cannot be planned in its entirety because research evolves as it is performed. Consequently, researchers can adjust the design of their methods even after data collection has begun. Stake 5 classifies case studies into three categories: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective/multiple. Intrinsic case studies focus on gaining a better understanding of the case. These are often undertaken when the researcher has an interest in a specific case. Instrumental case study is used when the case itself is not of the utmost importance, and the issue or phenomenon (ie, the research question) being explored becomes the focus instead (eg, Paciocco 32 used an instrumental case study to evaluate the implementation of a chronic disease management program). 5 Collective designs are rooted in an instrumental case study and include multiple cases to gain an in-depth understanding of the complexity and particularity of a phenomenon across diverse contexts. 5 , 23 In collective designs, studying similarities and differences between the cases allows the phenomenon to be understood more intimately (for examples of this in the field, see van Zelm et al. 33 and Burrows et al. 34 In addition, Sibbald et al. 35 present an example where a cross-case analysis method is used to compare instrumental cases).

Merriam’s approach is flexible (similar to Stake) as well as stepwise and linear (similar to Yin). She advocates for conducting a literature review before designing the study to better understand the theoretical underpinnings. 24 , 25 Unlike Stake or Yin, Merriam proposes a step-by-step guide for researchers to design a case study. These steps include performing a literature review, creating a theoretical framework, identifying the problem, creating and refining the research question(s), and selecting a study sample that fits the question(s). 24 , 25 , 36

Data collection and analysis

Using multiple data collection methods is a key characteristic of all case study methodology; it enhances the credibility of the findings by allowing different facets and views of the phenomenon to be explored. 23 Common methods include interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. 5 , 37 By seeking patterns within and across data sources, a thick description of the case can be generated to support a greater understanding and interpretation of the whole phenomenon. 5 , 17 , 20 , 23 This technique is called triangulation and is used to explore cases with greater accuracy. 5 Although Stake 5 maintains case study is most often used in qualitative research, Yin 17 supports a mix of both quantitative and qualitative methods to triangulate data. This deliberate convergence of data sources (or mixed methods) allows researchers to find greater depth in their analysis and develop converging lines of inquiry. For example, case studies evaluating interventions commonly use qualitative interviews to describe the implementation process, barriers, and facilitators paired with a quantitative survey of comparative outcomes and effectiveness. 33 , 38 , 39

Yin 30 describes analysis as dependent on the chosen approach, whether it be (1) deductive and rely on theoretical propositions; (2) inductive and analyze data from the “ground up”; (3) organized to create a case description; or (4) used to examine plausible rival explanations. According to Yin’s 40 approach to descriptive case studies, carefully considering theory development is an important part of study design. “Theory” refers to field-relevant propositions, commonly agreed upon assumptions, or fully developed theories. 40 Stake 5 advocates for using the researcher’s intuition and impression to guide analysis through a categorical aggregation and direct interpretation. Merriam 24 uses six different methods to guide the “process of making meaning” (p178) : (1) ethnographic analysis; (2) narrative analysis; (3) phenomenological analysis; (4) constant comparative method; (5) content analysis; and (6) analytic induction.

Drawing upon a theoretical or conceptual framework to inform analysis improves the quality of case study and avoids the risk of description without meaning. 18 Using Stake’s 5 approach, researchers rely on protocols and previous knowledge to help make sense of new ideas; theory can guide the research and assist researchers in understanding how new information fits into existing knowledge.

Practical applications of case study research

Columbia University has recently demonstrated how case studies can help train future health leaders. 41 Case studies encompass components of systems thinking—considering connections and interactions between components of a system, alongside the implications and consequences of those relationships—to equip health leaders with tools to tackle global health issues. 41 Greenwood 42 evaluated Indigenous peoples’ relationship with the healthcare system in British Columbia and used a case study to challenge and educate health leaders across the country to enhance culturally sensitive health service environments.

An important but often omitted step in case study research is an assessment of quality and rigour. We recommend using a framework or set of criteria to assess the rigour of the qualitative research. Suitable resources include Caelli et al., 43 Houghten et al., 44 Ravenek and Rudman, 45 and Tracy. 46

New directions in case study

Although “pragmatic” case studies (ie, utilizing practical and applicable methods) have existed within psychotherapy for some time, 47 , 48 only recently has the applicability of pragmatism as an underlying paradigmatic perspective been considered in HSR. 49 This is marked by uptake of pragmatism in Randomized Control Trials, recognizing that “gold standard” testing conditions do not reflect the reality of clinical settings 50 , 51 nor do a handful of epistemologically guided methodologies suit every research inquiry.

Pragmatism positions the research question as the basis for methodological choices, rather than a theory or epistemology, allowing researchers to pursue the most practical approach to understanding a problem or discovering an actionable solution. 52 Mixed methods are commonly used to create a deeper understanding of the case through converging qualitative and quantitative data. 52 Pragmatic case study is suited to HSR because its flexibility throughout the research process accommodates complexity, ever-changing systems, and disruptions to research plans. 49 , 50 Much like case study, pragmatism has been criticized for its flexibility and use when other approaches are seemingly ill-fit. 53 , 54 Similarly, authors argue that this results from a lack of investigation and proper application rather than a reflection of validity, legitimizing the need for more exploration and conversation among researchers and practitioners. 55

Although occasionally misunderstood as a less rigourous research methodology, 8 case study research is highly flexible and allows for contextual nuances. 5 , 6 Its use is valuable when the researcher desires a thorough understanding of a phenomenon or case bound by context. 11 If needed, multiple similar cases can be studied simultaneously, or one case within another. 16 , 17 There are currently three main approaches to case study, 5 , 17 , 24 each with their own definitions of a case, ontological and epistemological paradigms, methodologies, and data collection and analysis procedures. 37

Individuals’ experiences within health systems are influenced heavily by contextual factors, participant experience, and intricate relationships between different organizations and actors. 55 Case study research is well suited for HSR because it can track and examine these complex relationships and systems as they evolve over time. 6 , 7 It is important that researchers and health leaders using this methodology understand its key tenets and how to conduct a proper case study. Although there are many examples of case study in action, they are often under-reported and, when reported, not rigorously conducted. 9 Thus, decision-makers and health leaders should use these examples with caution. The proper reporting of case studies is necessary to bolster their credibility in HSR literature and provide readers sufficient information to critically assess the methodology. We also call on health leaders who frequently use case studies 56 – 58 to report them in the primary research literature.

The purpose of this article is to advocate for the continued and advanced use of case study in HSR and to provide literature-based guidance for decision-makers, policy-makers, and health leaders on how to engage in, read, and interpret findings from case study research. As health systems progress and evolve, the application of case study research will continue to increase as researchers and health leaders aim to capture the inherent complexities, nuances, and contextual factors. 7

Chapter 3: Research Methods

This study seeks to provide insight into the process of conducting community-based research.  In order to do so, the study utilizes a qualitative case study approach to examine the methodology of community-based research. Two contrasting cases of CBR are described and analyzed in order to understand the issues that arise when conducting CBR, the factors that facilitate or hinder the process, and the benefits of conducting CBR.  Finally, these contrasting cases are considered to determine what this study can contribute to the field of CBR.  This chapter details case study methodology as well as multiple case design.  It also describes the methodology of community-based research, the participants of the study, data collection and analysis, and issues around credibility, including my own subjectivities that may have influenced the research. 

Methodological Framework

In order to explore the collaborative process of conducting community-based research, this study utilizes a qualitative case study approach.  Case studies can be particularly useful for studying a process, program or individual in an in-depth, holistic way that allows for deep understanding (Merriam, 1998).  As Merriam points out,

A case study design is employed to gain an in-depth understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved.  The interest is in process rather than outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable, in discovery rather than confirmation (p. 19).

There are some differences in how researchers define case study.  Some researchers think of case study as the object to be studied (Stake, 2000), while others define case study as a process of investigation (Creswell, 2002).  Creswell defines case study as "an in-depth exploration of a bounded system (e.g., an activity, event, process, or individuals) based on extensive data collection" (p. 485).  Creswell recommends case study as a methodology if the problem to be studied "relates to developing an in-depth understanding of a 'case' or bounded system" (p. 496) and if the purpose is to understand "an event, activity, process, or one or more individuals" (p. 496).  Patton (1990) suggests that case studies are valuable in creating deep understanding of particular people, problems or situations in comprehensive ways.  

This study is particularly suitable for a case study design because it is a bounded system, it is contextual, and it is a study of process (Merriam, 1998).  Like Creswell (2002), Stake (2000) defines case study as the study of a "bounded system" (p. 436).  According to Creswell (2002), "'Bounded' means that the case is separated out for research in terms of time, place, or some physical boundaries" (p. 485).  In other words, it is possible to create limits around the object to be studied (Merriam, 1998).  A case study can focus on a variety of different things.  A case could be an individual, a group, a school, a community (Merriam, 1998), or a case could also include "a program, events, or activities" (Creswell, 2002, p. 485).  The bounded systems in my contrasting case studies are my collaboration with the Coalition for Schools [2] in a western city and my collaboration with community members in a small, rural, mountain community to carry out community-based research.  The boundaries of these two cases are determined by the people and groups that I collaborate with in the CBR process.  

I chose a case study design because it involves "detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context" (Creswell, 1998, p. 61).  Context is a key factor.  According to Merriam (1998), in focusing on a particular phenomenon in a case study, it is impossible to separate the phenomenon from its context.  However, in this study, it is important that the context is understood as part of the process.  As Yin (2003) says, "you would use the case study method because you deliberately wanted to cover contextual conditions-believing that they might be highly pertinent to your phenomenon of study" (p. 13).  Thus, using a case study approach allows for the possibility of gaining significant knowledge about the process of conducting community-based research in particular contexts.   According to Sanders (1981), "Case studies help us to understand processes of events, projects, and programs and to discover context characteristics that will shed light on an issue or object" (p. 44). 

The two case studies each took place over an extended period of time.  The first CBR project lasted nine months, and the second CBR project lasted eight months.  I worked with my collaborative partners to define research problems and questions, develop research designs, collect data, and analyze data.  However, this study does not focus on the data that I collected as part of that CBR work.  Instead, this study focuses on the process of the collaborative experience.  Since the study focuses primarily on the procedures of conducting community-based research, the study is considered a process study.  According to Patton (1990), when carrying out a process study, the "focus is on how something happens rather than on the outcomes or results obtained" (p.94).  And, as Merriam (1998) points out, "Case study is a particularly suitable design if you are interested in process" (p.33).  Therefore, case study was chosen since it allows for detailed monitoring of the collaborative process (Merriam, 1998). 

Types of Case Studies

Stake (2000) delineates three types of case studies: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective.  Intrinsic case studies focus on a case that is unusual and is of particular interest to the researcher (Creswell, 1998; Stake, 2000).  The intent is not to build theory (Stake, 2000).  An instrumental case study is pursued in order to provide insight about a particular issue that may be generalizable (Creswell, 2002).  The primary purpose of an instrumental case study is to help advance understanding (Stake, 2000).  The collective case study encompasses more than one case "in order to investigate a phenomenon, population, or general condition" (Stake, 2000, p. 437).  Since the purpose is to help advance understanding, a collective case study is a grouping of instrumental case studies (Stake, 2000).  Using a collective case study approach can allow for the possibility of stronger interpretation and "perhaps better theorizing" (Stake, 2000, p. 437). 

Though Stake (2000) uses the terminology "collective case study," this approach is known by other names such as, multiple case studies, cross-case studies, comparative case studies, and contrasting cases (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2003).  With multiple case studies, data are analyzed for insights both within each case and across cases (Merriam, 1998).  Yin (2003) points out that multiple cases may be chosen to try to replicate insights that you find within individuals cases or to represent contrasting situations.  Regardless of whether the purpose is replication or contrast, multiple case studies are "considered more compelling, and the overall study is therefore regarded as more robust" (Yin, 2003, p. 46). 

When this study was first proposed, the original intent was to pursue a single case study of my experience of collaboration in carrying out a community-based research project.  After completing my work with the Coalition for Schools, I felt dissatisfied with the experience in that I did not view it to be a success.  Instead of focusing on that one experience, I decided to pursue another research option in the small town in which I live in order to have a contrasting experience to write about.  It turned out that the project I completed in my small town was more successful, therefore allowing me to present contrasting cases.  Since this study seeks to add insight to the field of methodology in CBR, it is important to understand the factors that impact the process of collaboration and the factors that support successful collaborations (Strand et al., 2003a). 

Methodology of Community-Based Research

Since the purpose of this study is to explore the process of carrying out CBR, it is important to understand the methodology of community-based research.  As mentioned in chapter two, community-based research is not as concerned with methods as it is with methodology (Hills & Mullett, 2000; Strand et al., 2003a).  Either quantitative or qualitative methods may be used; the choice depends on what would obtain the most useful data for the community (Greenwood & Levin, 2000).  The methodology of CBR is guided by the three principles outlined by Strand et al. (2003a): 1) collaboration, 2) validation of the knowledge of community members and the multiple ways of collecting and distributing information, and 3) "social action and social change for the purpose of achieving social justice" (p. 8).  Though community-based research is not limited to specific methods, it does follow the typical stages of research that most traditional academic research would follow: defining the research question, developing a research design, collecting data, analyzing data, and writing up the results.  The difference is that the researcher collaborates closely with the community throughout the research process (Strand et al., 2003a).  The community is involved in determining the problem and research questions, creating the research design, collecting data, analyzing data, and creating a presentation of findings (Strand et al., 2003a).  The researcher also continues to play a role in the final stage by assisting with the enactment of solutions to create change (Greenwood & Levin, 1998). 

Regarding knowledge, community-based research seeks to redefine how we conceptualize knowledge in relation to academic research (Strand et al., 2003a).  Researchers who conduct CBR projects recognize the important knowledge that community members possess on the subject of their environment and the issues they are dealing with (Cordes, 1998a, No Concrete section, para. 2; Hills & Mullett, 2000, p. 1), what Strand (2000) calls "local knowledge" (p. 88).  This knowledge is key throughout the research process.  This acceptance of community knowledge does require the researcher to rethink his or her role.  As Stringer (1996) says, "The role of the researcher is not that of an expert who does research, but that of a resource person" (p. 22).  The expertise that the researcher brings to the equation is still valued; however, the local knowledge that the community brings is recognized as integral to the research process (Strand et al., 2003a). 

I have provided a brief overview of the methodology of CBR.  However, the purpose of this chapter is to describe the case study methods that I used to carry out this process study.  The descriptions of data collection and data analysis that are included in this chapter pertain to the data that were collected and analyzed for the contrasting case studies.  A description of the data collection and analysis that was conducted for the CBR projects in each case study will be included in the case descriptions in chapters four and five. 

Participants and Setting

Though I came into contact with a variety of people in each case study, my primary research collaborators are the main participants of my study.  In the first case study that I carried out, my collaboration with the Coalition for Schools, there were initially two primary collaborators, one of the co-chairs of the Coalition, Marge Bowline, and the director of the Coalition, Lisa Brown.  As my collaboration progressed, I worked primarily with Lisa Brown. 

The Coalition for Schools is an organization that has been created to support greater academic achievement in an urban school district in a western city.  The Coalition has focused its efforts toward a feeder pattern of schools in a quadrant of the city that has a high percentage of students who are eligible for free or reduced lunches, a high percentage of minority students, and a high percentage of English language learners.  This feeder pattern includes five elementary schools, two middle schools, and three small high schools that were originally part of one large high school and that are housed in one building.  The Coalition is an alliance of non-profit organizations, foundations, parent organizations, universities and colleges, and the school district working together to support achievement in these low performing schools.  The Business and Schools United (BSU) organization is the lead partner for the Coalition, and the Coalition is housed at BSU.  Marge Bowline is the director of BSU and one of the co-chairs of the Coalition for Schools.  She helped to create the Coalition and to procure funding for the organization.  The Coalition was a year old when I began my work with them.  Lisa Brown was hired to direct the Coalition and replaced the first director.  She had been in her position for about six months when I began my work with the Coalition. 

The two primary collaborators in my work in a small, western, mountain town are John Brewer and Maria Swenson.  The town is a small rural community that has a rapidly growing immigrant population from Mexico, about half of which are Indians from a remote area of the country.  Both John Brewer and Maria Swenson work in positions that have direct contact with this population.  John Brewer is the director of the literacy program which offers free English courses for English as a Second Language (ESL) students.  He is also a member of the city council.  Marge Swenson, who is herself a former immigrant from South America, is the coordinator of the diversity office which provides services to immigrants in town.  The case descriptions in chapters four and five provide greater detail of the participants and setting. 

Data Collection

As I progressed through each case study, I pursued two streams of data collection; the data collected to pursue the CBR projects and data that were collected as part of this case study to study CBR.  This section describes only the data that were collected for the case studies.  A description of the CBR data that were collected for each collaboration is included in the case descriptions in chapters four and five. 

Since the purpose of case study research is to provide an in-depth exploration of the person, program, or process under study, it requires intensive data collection (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2003) using "multiple forms of data" (Creswell, 2002, p. 486).  Data collection for case studies usually focuses on three sources of data: observations, interviews, and documents (Merriam, 1998).  Though all qualitative research is to some extent based on the idea of emergent design, this study was truly emergent.  Though the research questions that this study proposed to address did not shift throughout the study, the methods of data collection changed to accommodate emerging issues or ideas.  According to Patton (1990),

What is certain is that different methods produce quite different information.  The challenge is to find out which information is most needed and most useful in a given situation, and then employ those methods best suited to producing the needed information (p. 196).

Though I collected all three forms of data (observations, interviews, and documents) for each study, there are some variations that are detailed in the following sections.  Appendix A provides a list showing the dates of meetings and interviews for each case study. 

Observations

My primary source of data collection for both case studies was observation.  Since I was essentially observing myself as I collaborated with my community partner, all of the observations that I completed for my case study data collection were participant observations.  Creswell (2002) defines participant observation as "an observational role adopted by researchers when they take part in activities in the setting they observe" (p. 200).  In this role, the researcher "actually engages in activities at the site begin studied" (p. 200).  Glesne (1999) describes a continuum of participation that "ranges from mostly observation to mostly participation" (p. 44).  Based on this continuum, I was what Glesne (1999) describes as a "full participant" in every interaction relating to my collaborative work with my community partners since I was concurrently a member of the collaborative partnership as well as the researcher investigating the process.  

In all of the meetings that I conducted with my community partners in relation to our CBR work, I collected data around those interactions.  I utilized Merriam's (1998) checklist of elements to structure my observations: physical setting, participants, activities and interactions, conversation, subtle factors, and my own behavior (pp. 97-98).  When working on my first CBR project with the Coalition, I initially only maintained field notes.  I was concerned that if I taped our meetings that it would be intrusive and would impact the openness of our conversations (Merriam, 1998).  However, as my study progressed I realized that it was difficult to take effective notes while participating in the conversation.  I then asked my community partners if I could tape subsequent meetings.  After that, most of the meetings I had with Lisa Brown or Marge Bowline were taped and then transcribed.  As part of the transcription process, I added notes that clarified or contextualized the dialogue.  When I began my work with my community partners in my small town, I asked during the first meeting if I could tape all of our meetings; both John Brewer and Maria Swenson readily agreed.  I found that after the use of the tape recorder became routine, they did not seem to be inhibited by being recorded.  Using the tape recorder allowed me to collect much more extensive data from my observations of our meetings. 

            Interviews

As part of the data collection for both case studies, I collected both formal and informal interview data (Patton, 1990).  Informal conversational interview questions were interwoven into meetings that we had in relation to ongoing research (Merriam, 1998) and were recorded as part of observation transcriptions.  These informal questions typically addressed how the community partner felt the research process was progressing, whether the research was meeting their needs, or addressed immediate questions that arose through the process of continued interaction. 

I also collected formal interview data for both case studies; however, I conducted fewer formal interviews with my community partners from the Coalition for Schools.  As my work with the Coalition progressed, I sought to determine particular data collection procedures that would address my research questions.  Since I was working within a collaborative relationship, part of the consideration when choosing methods was the impact that various methods would have on the relationship with my community partner.  In this first case study, as I show in more detail in chapter four, it was challenging to develop a collaborative relationship with my community partners.  The lack of trust and communication within this relationship made it difficult to carry out formal interviews discussing our collaboration.  I felt that these kinds of interviews would create greater distance between us.  Instead I relied primarily on other forms of data collection, observations and documents.  However, I did interview both Lisa Brown and Marge Bowline once formally toward the end of our partnership.  This interview included questions about the work of the Coalition as well as questions relating to community-based research (Appendix B).  I also conducted a follow-up email interview with Lisa Brown after beginning the process of data analysis (Appendix B).   

In my collaboration with John Brewer and Maria Swenson in my small town, I was able to develop a much more honest and open relationship from the beginning and felt very comfortable conducting formal interviews about the process.  I interviewed John and Maria individually three times throughout our collaboration (Appendix B).  I used a semi-structured approach (Rubin & Rubin, 1995) when designing the interview protocols.  I prepared questions as a starting point, but allowed the conversation to flow in whatever direction was helpful to providing insight.  The first interview focused on getting a sense of their background and experiences with research, their expectations for our research, and strategies for effective communication.  The second interview focused on their satisfaction with how things were proceeding, whether they felt we were communicating effectively, and whether they were having the input they wanted to have in the process.  The final interview focused primarily on the research questions of the case study: what were the issues that arose, what helped or hindered our collaboration, and what benefits did they receive from the research.  I transcribed each interview and added additional notes for interpretation. 

As part of the data collection process, I also collected or created a variety of documents including: email communications, a reflective journal, a phone call log, and other items that were provided by my community partners such as newsletters and meeting minutes.  As part of my collaboration with the Coalition for Schools, we relied extensively on email for communication since I found it difficult to schedule face-to-face meetings with Marge Bowline and Lisa Brown.  These email conversations are an important source of data in compiling a picture of our collaborative experience.  I also collected email data during my second case study.  However, these email communications focused primarily on setting up logistics.  Most important conversations were conducted face-to-face. 

Throughout both case studies, I sought to engage in a reflective stance toward my role in the research process.  In order to aid my reflection, I maintained a journal in which I transcribed my thinking in relation to my experiences and the perceived experiences of my community partners.  Merriam (1998) expresses some concern about using personal documents such as journals as data.  Merriam (1998) says,

Personal documents are a reliable source of data concerning a person's attitudes, beliefs, and view of the world.  But because they are personal documents, the material is highly subjective in that the writer is the only  one to select what he or she considers important to record.  Obviously these documents are not representative or necessarily reliable accounts of what actually may have occurred (p. 116).

However, Merriam (1998) does point out that one of the goals of qualitative research is to "reflect the participant's perspective" (p. 116).  Since this is a process study, the perceptions of all participants are a key consideration (Patton, 1990).  As I am a participant in this study, my perceptions of my experience of the process are important. 

The other documents I collected consisted of a phone call log and documents obtained when meeting with my community partners.  The phone call log consisted of a brief description of phone calls that were made during the research process.  If the conversation was extensive, I tried to recreate the conversation as closely as possible.  The phone call log was used primarily during my collaboration with John Brewer and Maria Swenson.  I also obtained various documents from my community partners.  These mostly included newsletters, meeting minutes, and data collected from previous research.  Most of the documents related to the CBR work we were conducting; yet some of the documents also provided information for my case study research. 

Data Analysis

After completing both case studies, I had accumulated large volumes of data (more than 500 pages of data for each case study).  I organized the data from both cases into what Yin (2003) calls a case study data base .   I organized my case study data base in a chronological order so that I could move through the data from the beginning to the end of the process.  This allowed me to perceive the progression of the process and my changing views throughout.  However, I felt that I needed an additional frame from which to organize the data. 

Data analysis was an ongoing process throughout the implementation of each case study.  Periodically I composed analytic memos to begin to formulate ideas around particular findings.  As each study progressed, I looked for events with common elements within the data that had "issue-relevant meaning" (Creswell, 1998, p. 154) or significance for the study.  As I recognized these common elements, I focused on determining whether they continued to be supported throughout the data collection process.  Creswell (1998) calls this process categorical aggregation.  As categories within the data began to emerge, I began to look for patterns or themes that connected these categories.  Based on the literature and the categories and themes that emerged while conducting the cases, I created an analytic framework from which to organize and think about the data. 

Analytic Framework      

The analytic framework is composed of four categories: community, collaboration, knowledge creation, and change.  In creating this framework, I was influenced by Stoecker's (2003) delineation of radical and mainstream CBR.  I view each of the four constructs of my framework as existing on a continuum.  At one end, there is radical CBR, in the middle, mainstream CBR, and at the other end the professional expert model or consulting (see Figure 1).  Based on how I conceptualize this framework, the closer on the continuum the researcher moves toward radical CBR, the greater the potential for change that will benefit the community with which the researcher is collaborating. 

When considering the category of community, the goal is to work as closely as possible with the community.  Since the ultimate goal of CBR is "social change for social justice" (Stoecker, 2002a, p. 9), the closer the researcher is to the members of the community who are dealing with the problem (Stoecker, 2003), the greater the potential to empower.  The community continuum includes grassroots organizations on one end and organizations which do not represent the community or use practices that "disempower the community" (Strand et al., 2003a. p. 73) on the other (see Figure 1).  In between are organizations that are a level removed from grassroots organizations but still seek to represent the community democratically, what Strand et al. (2003a) call "midlevel organizations" (p. 74).  Conducting CBR projects with midlevel organizations is what Strand et al. (2003a) label " doing CBR in the middle " (p. 73). 

Within this analytic framework, I conceptualize collaboration as shared decision making.  The goal is that the community should have equal power with the researcher and that decision making should be a shared process throughout (Strand et al., 2003a).  When considering this concept within the continuum, shared decision making is at one end of the continuum and at the other end the decisions are made primarily by the researcher (see Figure 1).  A companion to collaboration is the concept of participation in knowledge creation.  The primary goal in relation to this aspect of the framework is that the community assists in the creation of all knowledge that is generated during the CBR process, thus leading to community empowerment.  This point of the framework is based on the principle that the knowledge of community members is valid (Strand et al., 2003a) and integral to creating strong results.  At one end of the continuum, the community is involved in all aspects of knowledge creation, at the other end, the researcher controls the creation of knowledge (see Figure 1). 

The final point of the analytic framework is change (see Figure 1).  If you consider CBR within the radical framework described by Stoecker (2003), the goal for change is "massive structural changes in the distribution of power and resources through far-reaching changes in governmental policy, economic practices, or cultural norms" (p. 36).  This goal can be difficult to achieve.  More often, CBR work leads to programmatic changes within an organization or other more limited changes (Strand et al., 2003a).  However, each change within a community can have a cumulative effect that can lead to broader change.  Community-based research that does not involve the community in close collaboration and knowledge creation is less likely to create change that benefits the community.

Analysis of Contrasting Cases

Since this study utilizes contrasting cases, data analysis occurs at two levels: within-case and across cases (Merriam, 1998).  Merriam (1998) describes this process:            

For the within-case analysis , each case is first treated as a comprehensive case in and of itself.  Data are gathered so the researcher can learn as much about the contextual variables as possible that might have a bearing on the case...Once the analysis of each case is completed, cross-case analysis begins.  A qualitative, inductive, multicase study seeks to build abstractions across cases (pp. 194-195).

For each case, I analyzed observations, interviews, and documents to develop a description of the case. This description depicts the setting and participants as well as a general chronology of events and provides the reader with an understanding of the particulars of the case (Creswell, 1998).  This allows the reader to develop an understanding of the case within the larger context (Creswell, 2002).  Then using the analytic framework I developed, I did some within-case analysis and organized the categories that emerged during each study around the four constructs of my analytic framework.  This within-case analysis focused on answering the primary research question: What is the process of collaborating with a community partner on a community-based research project?  Thus each case analysis consists of  "both description and thematic development" (Creswell, 2002, p. 486).           

After completing the within-case analysis, I focused on the cross-case analysis to address three of the sub-questions of the study: What kinds of issues arise when collaborating on a community-based research project? What facilitates or hinders the process of collaboration? and, What does the researcher gain through this collaborative process, and what are the benefits for the community?  In the cross-case analysis, I used data from both case studies to address these questions.  I explored the categories that had emerged throughout each case study and then compared to see if these categories were supported in both cases.  I used the categories and themes that emerged during the within-case analysis and the cross-case analysis to determine "naturalistic generalizations" (Creswell, 1998, p. 154) concerning the field of community-based research.  Creswell (1998) defines naturalistic generalizations as "generalizations that people can learn from the case either for themselves or for applying it to a population of cases" (p. 154).  These naturalistic generalizations address the final question of the study: What can we learn from these experiences to inform the field of CBR?

In order to lend credibility to the findings of my study, I incorporated a variety of validity procedures.  The first validity procedure I employed was prolonged engagement in the field (Creswell & Miller, 2000) or what Merriam (1998) calls "long-term observation" (p. 204).  I worked on my case study with the Coalition for a period of nine months, and I worked with John and Maria for a period of eight months.  During each of these case studies, I had consistent contact with my community partners.  Collaborating with my community partners for this length of time allowed me to develop tentative categories in my findings and then follow up on these preliminary findings through observations or interviews (Creswell & Miller, 2000).  Therefore, the length of each case study and the consistent contact I had with my community partners lends credibility to my perceptions of this experience.

In addition to prolonged engagement in the field, another important validity procedure I employed, which is integral to case study design, was triangulation (Creswell, 1998).  Merriam (1998) defines triangulation as "using multiple investigators, multiple sources of data, or multiple methods to confirm the emerging findings" (p. 204).  I employed methodological triangulation (Creswell & Miller, 2000) since I collected three forms of data: observations, interviews, and documents.  I also employed multiple sources of data since interviews were conducted with several participants (Creswell & Miller, 2000).  I used the process of triangulation to seek convergence in the data and to confirm or disconfirm emerging categories and themes (Creswell & Miller, 2000).  As part of this process, I employed another validity strategy, disconfirming evidence (Creswell &  Miller, 2000).  Categories or themes that emerged in the within-case analysis were compared across cases.  If a category did not hold true across cases, it was generally deemed to be unreliable.  However, I did utilize what Creswell (1998) calls direct interpretation.  In direct interpretation, "the case study researcher looks at a single instance and draws meaning from it without looking for multiple instances" (p. 154).  I did recognize that there were single incidents specific to only one case that were significant to the study as well. 

Since this case study focused on the study of process, my perceptions were an integral component of the research.  However, since I did write interpretations of what I considered to be the perceptions of others, I used member checking to ensure accurate portrayal (Creswell & Miller, 2000).  I conducted member checking toward the end of the study so that it would not potentially disrupt the collaborative process.  I shared an outline of findings with Lisa Brown with the Coalition and also John Brewer and Maria Swenson in my small town and allowed them the opportunity to provide feedback.  Lisa Brown responded to the findings through email and said, "Thanks for sharing [these findings].  I feel it is accurate, and that it was a learning experience for all of us."  Maria Swenson also responded to the findings that I shared with she and John.  She said, "I looked at [the findings] and it sounds good.  I agree with all said."  John also said that he thought that the findings looked good. 

Finally, I used the validity procedure of thick description when writing about the study in order to give the reader a sense of being there and to capture the essence of the experience (Creswell & Miller, 2000).  This is an important feature in case study design that is presented to the reader through the case description.  The case description for each contrasting case is included in chapters four and five.  

            Subjectivity

Another method of creditability I used continuously throughout the research process was researcher reflexivity (Creswell & Miller, 2000).  I incorporated researcher reflexivity by constantly questioning my assumptions about what I thought was happening.  I sought to maintain a heightened sense of awareness of the biases that I brought to the study and maintained this awareness when adding contextual data to field notes, observations transcriptions, and interview transcriptions, and also when writing journal entries. 

Since my perceptions of the research process played a major part in the findings of the study, it was important that I attend to the idea of subjectivity.  Peshkin (1988), defines subjectivity as "the quality of the investigator that affects the results of observational investigation" (p. 17).  Peshkin (1988) points out that an individual's subjectivity is not something that can be removed, and it is therefore something researchers need to be aware of throughout the research process.  Peshkin (1988) identified the various facets of his subjectivities through a series of I's, for example, the "justice-seeking I" (p. 18) and "the community-maintenance I" (p. 18).  Though Peshkin does not view subjectivity as necessarily negative, he does feel it is something that researchers need to realize and acknowledge.  It was important to examine my own subjectivities throughout the research process so that I was aware of how these subjectivities could influence my interpretations and portrayal of events.  As Strand (2000) points out, "the researcher's values, experiences, and personal points of view are as much a part of the research process as those of the people studied, and they should be discussed and acknowledged" (p. 91). 

Since the two CBR projects I worked on were in different settings and related to different types of work, I dealt with different subjectivities within each case study.  In my work with the Coalition for Schools many of the subjectivities that I brought to that collaboration arose from my past experience as a classroom teacher.  I hold the perception that people who do not have experience in a K-12 classroom do not generally understand the issues that classroom teachers have to address.  I can be defensive and overly sensitive to criticism that I feel puts the blame on teachers.  There were many times during my partnership with the Coalition that I realized this subjectivity was influencing my reactions to statements made by Lisa Brown or Marge Bowline.  I also think that this perception at times clouded my view of the knowledge that Lisa brought to the equation.  Though I felt that she was very knowledgeable in certain areas, I questioned her understanding of what was actually happening in the schools that are part of the Coalition.  I tried to be aware of my bias in this area, though I do not believe I was always successful in controlling how this bias influenced my work with Lisa. 

Another bias that I brought to my work with the Coalition was the idea that a successful partnership should not have conflict.  I tend to avoid conflict in my personal life.  I have difficulty at times recognizing the benefits that conflict can bring.  Because of this, I did not communicate as effectively with Lisa as I could have.  If had been more willing to risk conflict, we may have been able to develop a more productive working relationship.  When I began my work with John Brewer and Maria Swenson, I determined that I would not avoid conflict in this collaboration.  When a situation did arise where John and I disagreed, I engaged him, and we talked through the matter.  The outcome was that we both were able to see the value of the other's viewpoint. 

Though I was able to address the issue of conflict avoidance in my work in John Brewer and Maria Swenson, there were other subjectivities and biases of which I had to be aware.  I am liable to have the perception that small towns tend to discriminate against minorities.  Since all of the projects that I completed with John and Maria involved the immigrant population in town, I felt at times that I was waiting for someone to say something that would demonstrate their prejudice.  At times, I would jump to the conclusion that a particular statement was pejorative.  When looking back again at the statement in the context of the full conversation, I realized at times that I may have misinterpreted particular statements.  I had to make a concerted effort not to single out statements just because they supported my bias.  Nevertheless, this subjectivity did influence whom I chose to partner with during this case study.  I had originally planned to include Maria's supervisor, Jennifer Payton, in our collaboration.  However, after meeting with Jennifer in October 2003, I decided not to collaborate with her since she made several comments during the meeting that I perceived to be pejorative.  If I had decided to work with Jennifer, I may have found that these comments did not represent discrimination but rather a lack of understanding of the impact of language choices. 

Two other subjectivities that I brought into my work on both projects related to my experience with previous CBR projects.  As I was involved in another community-based research project before working on my dissertation, I already had an initial perception of how the process works.  One concern that arose during my previous experience was the issue of communicating with my community partner.  I had difficulty developing a research question because the conversations that I shared with my community partner seemed circuitous.  We talked around questions during several meetings before I was finally able to gain a sense of what she was hoping to achieve from the research.  Though these past experiences with community-based research helped me to anticipate some of the issues that arose, I tried to make sure that the anticipation of issues did not create issues. 

When entering into CBR projects, it is important to me that I am doing work that I view as meaningful.  Work that is meaningful to me would be research that allows me to consistently interact with members of the community on a personal level.  However, I tried to maintain the awareness that the research that I wished to pursue was not necessarily the research that the people I was collaborating with wished to pursue.  I continued to remind myself that these discrepancies should not interfere with the development of a research design that was beneficial to my community partner and had the potential to bring about effective change.  Since change is the goal of community-based research, I needed to be sure that the change I was assisting to create was the change that the community partner was seeking to make rather than the change that I would have liked to pursue. 

Finally, when a researcher carries out a qualitative study, it is also important to attend to the subjectivities that the researcher brings based on gender, age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.  I feel at times that I lack self-awareness of how these orientations impact the way that I view the world.  Though I tried to be conscious of these factors while doing my research, I am not sure that I was successful in completely exploring how these subjectivities may have influenced my research.  I do feel, however, that my status was an issue in the work that I conducted with the Coalition for Schools.  My status in relation to my age (under 40) and my position as a graduate student influenced how my community partners at the Coalition viewed my role, and my socioeconomic background impacted the level of confidence that I felt when working with members of the Coalition.  I come from a working class background while my community partners at the Coalition come from backgrounds of higher status both in relation to levels of education and socioeconomic status.  At times, I did feel out of place moving through the world of the Coalition in that I often felt that I was from a lower class than many of the people with which I came into contact.  I felt most comfortable when interacting with teachers or parents. 

In order to minimize the impact of my subjectivities, I closely monitored my feelings as I carried out my research.  I looked for situations where I felt uncomfortable or that I wanted to avoid as well as situations where I felt comfortable and that I wanted to continue.  When these feelings arose, I realized that I was usually being influenced by subjectivity (Glesne, 1999; Peshkin, 1988).  I analyzed my feelings and considered how they related to my subjectivities, then took note of these occurrences in my journal (Peshkin, 1988).  Throughout the research process, I was mindful of previously identified subjectivities.  I also tried to be aware of newly emerging subjectivities that I may not have considered (Peshkin, 1988) that would potentially influence my research. 

Limitations of This Study

This study seeks to compare two cases of conducting community-based research.  However, there are differences between the two experiences that may have impacted the findings of the study.  In my work with the Coalition, I was a paid employee.  Though I was hired with the understanding that I would be a collaborative researcher, I believe my position as an employee impacted how Marge Bowline and Lisa Brown viewed my role, and it also impacted my reactions to various situations.  The fact that I was an employee in the first case study when collaborating with the Coalition but in the second case study I was independent, may have created some of the differences that were apparent in the two cases. 

Another limitation of this study is that it primarily focuses on the researcher's experience of this process.  Though I did interview my community partners, the number of interviews in the first case study was more limited.  If I had conducted additional interviews throughout the first case study, I might have additional information to support or contradict some of my observations.  However, the purpose of this study is to provide insight into this process for practitioners in the field of community-based research, thus it is beneficial to explore the researcher's perspective of these two experiences. 

The final limitation of this study relates to the timeline of the completion of the study.  Since I only recently finalized data collection in relation to my work with John Brewer and Maria Swenson, I am not really able to make an assessment at this point as to whether any of the work we completed will affect change.  My work with the Coalition was completed almost a year ago so it easier to assess the impact of that work.  However, even with the first case study, there is a possibility that some of the work that I completed could eventually lead to change.  If I were to conduct a long-term case study in relation to either of these collaborations, it would be more feasible to assess the impact of our work. 

This chapter provided an overview to the case study methods that were used to conduct this study.  I detailed a rationale for choosing this method, then described data collection, analysis, and procedures in relation to validity.  Since this is a process study of the methodology of CBR, I also described the foundations of this methodology.  The next three chapters will present the findings of this study.  Chapters four and five provide a synopsis of the within-case analysis of each of the contrasting cases.  I begin each chapter with a chronological overview of the major events of the case and then present within-case analysis organized around the four concepts of my analytic framework.  In chapter six, I present the findings from the cross-case analysis that address the sub-questions of the study and identify the "naturalistic generalizations" (Creswell, 1998, p. 154) that emerged from the study with recommendations for further research. 

Synonyms of case studies

• as in records
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Thesaurus Definition of case studies

Synonyms & Similar Words

• case histories
• chronologies
• depositions
• commentaries
• testimonies
• testimonials
• documentations
• procès - verbaux
• recitations

Thesaurus Entries Near case studies

cases in point

case studies

Cite this Entry

“Case studies.” Merriam-Webster.com Thesaurus , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/case%20studies. Accessed 7 Apr. 2024.

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