english annotation techniques

How to Annotate Texts

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Annotation Fundamentals

How to start annotating , how to annotate digital texts, how to annotate a textbook, how to annotate a scholarly article or book, how to annotate literature, how to annotate images, videos, and performances, additional resources for teachers.

Writing in your books can make you smarter. Or, at least (according to education experts), annotation–an umbrella term for underlining, highlighting, circling, and, most importantly, leaving comments in the margins–helps students to remember and comprehend what they read. Annotation is like a conversation between reader and text. Proper annotation allows students to record their own opinions and reactions, which can serve as the inspiration for research questions and theses. So, whether you're reading a novel, poem, news article, or science textbook, taking notes along the way can give you an advantage in preparing for tests or writing essays. This guide contains resources that explain the benefits of annotating texts, provide annotation tools, and suggest approaches for diverse kinds of texts; the last section includes lesson plans and exercises for teachers.

Why annotate? As the resources below explain, annotation allows students to emphasize connections to material covered elsewhere in the text (or in other texts), material covered previously in the course, or material covered in lectures and discussion. In other words, proper annotation is an organizing tool and a time saver. The links in this section will introduce you to the theory, practice, and purpose of annotation. 

How to Mark a Book, by Mortimer Adler

This famous, charming essay lays out the case for marking up books, and provides practical suggestions at the end including underlining, highlighting, circling key words, using vertical lines to mark shifts in tone/subject, numbering points in an argument, and keeping track of questions that occur to you as you read. 

How Annotation Reshapes Student Thinking (TeacherHUB)

In this article, a high school teacher discusses the importance of annotation and how annotation encourages more effective critical thinking.

The Future of Annotation (Journal of Business and Technical Communication)

This scholarly article summarizes research on the benefits of annotation in the classroom and in business. It also discusses how technology and digital texts might affect the future of annotation. 

Annotating to Deepen Understanding (Texas Education Agency)

This website provides another introduction to annotation (designed for 11th graders). It includes a helpful section that teaches students how to annotate reading comprehension passages on tests.

Once you understand what annotation is, you're ready to begin. But what tools do you need? How do you prepare? The resources linked in this section list strategies and techniques you can use to start annotating. 

What is Annotating? (Charleston County School District)

This resource gives an overview of annotation styles, including useful shorthands and symbols. This is a good place for a student who has never annotated before to begin.

How to Annotate Text While Reading (YouTube)

This video tutorial (appropriate for grades 6–10) explains the basic ins and outs of annotation and gives examples of the type of information students should be looking for.

Annotation Practices: Reading a Play-text vs. Watching Film (U Calgary)

This blog post, written by a student, talks about how the goals and approaches of annotation might change depending on the type of text or performance being observed. 

Annotating Texts with Sticky Notes (Lyndhurst Schools)

Sometimes students are asked to annotate books they don't own or can't write in for other reasons. This resource provides some strategies for using sticky notes instead.

Teaching Students to Close Read...When You Can't Mark the Text (Performing in Education)

Here, a sixth grade teacher demonstrates the strategies she uses for getting her students to annotate with sticky notes. This resource includes a link to the teacher's free Annotation Bookmark (via Teachers Pay Teachers).

Digital texts can present a special challenge when it comes to annotation; emerging research suggests that many students struggle to critically read and retain information from digital texts. However, proper annotation can solve the problem. This section contains links to the most highly-utilized platforms for electronic annotation.

Evernote is one of the two big players in the "digital annotation apps" game. In addition to allowing users to annotate digital documents, the service (for a fee) allows users to group multiple formats (PDF, webpages, scanned hand-written notes) into separate notebooks, create voice recordings, and sync across all sorts of devices. 

OneNote is Evernote's main competitor. Reviews suggest that OneNote allows for more freedom for digital note-taking than Evernote, but that it is slightly more awkward to import and annotate a PDF, especially on certain platforms. However, OneNote's free version is slightly more feature-filled, and OneNote allows you to link your notes to time stamps on an audio recording.

Diigo is a basic browser extension that allows a user to annotate webpages. Diigo also offers a Screenshot app that allows for direct saving to Google Drive.

While the creators of Hypothesis like to focus on their app's social dimension, students are more likely to be interested in the private highlighting and annotating functions of this program.

Foxit PDF Reader

Foxit is one of the leading PDF readers. Though the full suite must be purchased, Foxit offers a number of annotation and highlighting tools for free.

Nitro PDF Reader

This is another well-reviewed, free PDF reader that includes annotation and highlighting. Annotation, text editing, and other tools are included in the free version.

Goodreader is a very popular Mac-only app that includes annotation and editing tools for PDFs, Word documents, Powerpoint, and other formats.

Although textbooks have vocabulary lists, summaries, and other features to emphasize important material, annotation can allow students to process information and discover their own connections. This section links to guides and video tutorials that introduce you to textbook annotation. 

Annotating Textbooks (Niagara University)

This PDF provides a basic introduction as well as strategies including focusing on main ideas, working by section or chapter, annotating in your own words, and turning section headings into questions.

A Simple Guide to Text Annotation (Catawba College)

The simple, practical strategies laid out in this step-by-step guide will help students learn how to break down chapters in their textbooks using main ideas, definitions, lists, summaries, and potential test questions.

Annotating (Mercer Community College)

This packet, an excerpt from a literature textbook, provides a short exercise and some examples of how to do textbook annotation, including using shorthand and symbols.

Reading Your Healthcare Textbook: Annotation (Saddleback College)

This powerpoint contains a number of helpful suggestions, especially for students who are new to annotation. It emphasizes limited highlighting, lots of student writing, and using key words to find the most important information in a textbook. Despite the title, it is useful to a student in any discipline.

Annotating a Textbook (Excelsior College OWL)

This video (with included transcript) discusses how to use textbook features like boxes and sidebars to help guide annotation. It's an extremely helpful, detailed discussion of how textbooks are organized.

Because scholarly articles and books have complex arguments and often depend on technical vocabulary, they present particular challenges for an annotating student. The resources in this section help students get to the heart of scholarly texts in order to annotate and, by extension, understand the reading.

Annotating a Text (Hunter College)

This resource is designed for college students and shows how to annotate a scholarly article using highlighting, paraphrase, a descriptive outline, and a two-margin approach. It ends with a sample passage marked up using the strategies provided. 

Guide to Annotating the Scholarly Article (ReadWriteThink.org)

This is an effective introduction to annotating scholarly articles across all disciplines. This resource encourages students to break down how the article uses primary and secondary sources and to annotate the types of arguments and persuasive strategies (synthesis, analysis, compare/contrast).

How to Highlight and Annotate Your Research Articles (CHHS Media Center)

This video, developed by a high school media specialist, provides an effective beginner-level introduction to annotating research articles. 

How to Read a Scholarly Book (AndrewJacobs.org)

In this essay, a college professor lets readers in on the secrets of scholarly monographs. Though he does not discuss annotation, he explains how to find a scholarly book's thesis, methodology, and often even a brief literature review in the introduction. This is a key place for students to focus when creating annotations. 

A 5-step Approach to Reading Scholarly Literature and Taking Notes (Heather Young Leslie)

This resource, written by a professor of anthropology, is an even more comprehensive and detailed guide to reading scholarly literature. Combining the annotation techniques above with the reading strategy here allows students to process scholarly book efficiently. 

Annotation is also an important part of close reading works of literature. Annotating helps students recognize symbolism, double meanings, and other literary devices. These resources provide additional guidelines on annotating literature.

AP English Language Annotation Guide (YouTube)

In this ~10 minute video, an AP Language teacher provides tips and suggestions for using annotations to point out rhetorical strategies and other important information.

Annotating Text Lesson (YouTube)

In this video tutorial, an English teacher shows how she uses the white board to guide students through annotation and close reading. This resource uses an in-depth example to model annotation step-by-step.

Close Reading a Text and Avoiding Pitfalls (Purdue OWL)

This resources demonstrates how annotation is a central part of a solid close reading strategy; it also lists common mistakes to avoid in the annotation process.

AP Literature Assignment: Annotating Literature (Mount Notre Dame H.S.)

This brief assignment sheet contains suggestions for what to annotate in a novel, including building connections between parts of the book, among multiple books you are reading/have read, and between the book and your own experience. It also includes samples of quality annotations.

AP Handout: Annotation Guide (Covington Catholic H.S.)

This annotation guide shows how to keep track of symbolism, figurative language, and other devices in a novel using a highlighter, a pencil, and every part of a book (including the front and back covers).

In addition to written resources, it's possible to annotate visual "texts" like theatrical performances, movies, sculptures, and paintings. Taking notes on visual texts allows students to recall details after viewing a resource which, unlike a book, can't be re-read or re-visited ( for example, a play that has finished its run, or an art exhibition that is far away). These resources draw attention to the special questions and techniques that students should use when dealing with visual texts.

How to Take Notes on Videos (U of Southern California)

This resource is a good place to start for a student who has never had to take notes on film before. It briefly outlines three general approaches to note-taking on a film. 

How to Analyze a Movie, Step-by-Step (San Diego Film Festival)

This detailed guide provides lots of tips for film criticism and analysis. It contains a list of specific questions to ask with respect to plot, character development, direction, musical score, cinematography, special effects, and more. 

How to "Read" a Film (UPenn)

This resource provides an academic perspective on the art of annotating and analyzing a film. Like other resources, it provides students a checklist of things to watch out for as they watch the film.

Art Annotation Guide (Gosford Hill School)

This resource focuses on how to annotate a piece of art with respect to its formal elements like line, tone, mood, and composition. It contains a number of helpful questions and relevant examples. 

Photography Annotation (Arts at Trinity)

This resource is designed specifically for photography students. Like some of the other resources on this list, it primarily focuses on formal elements, but also shows students how to integrate the specific technical vocabulary of modern photography. This resource also contains a number of helpful sample annotations.

How to Review a Play (U of Wisconsin)

This resource from the University of Wisconsin Writing Center is designed to help students write a review of a play. It contains suggested questions for students to keep in mind as they watch a given production. This resource helps students think about staging, props, script alterations, and many other key elements of a performance.

This section contains links to lessons plans and exercises suitable for high school and college instructors.

Beyond the Yellow Highlighter: Teaching Annotation Skills to Improve Reading Comprehension (English Journal)

In this journal article, a high school teacher talks about her approach to teaching annotation. This article makes a clear distinction between annotation and mere highlighting.

Lesson Plan for Teaching Annotation, Grades 9–12 (readwritethink.org)

This lesson plan, published by the National Council of Teachers of English, contains four complete lessons that help introduce high school students to annotation.

Teaching Theme Using Close Reading (Performing in Education)

This lesson plan was developed by a middle school teacher, and is aligned to Common Core. The teacher presents her strategies and resources in comprehensive fashion.

Analyzing a Speech Using Annotation (UNC-TV/PBS Learning Media)

This complete lesson plan, which includes a guide for the teacher and relevant handouts for students, will prepare students to analyze both the written and presentation components of a speech. This lesson plan is best for students in 6th–10th grade.

Writing to Learn History: Annotation and Mini-Writes (teachinghistory.org)

This teaching guide, developed for high school History classes, provides handouts and suggested exercises that can help students become more comfortable with annotating historical sources.

Writing About Art (The College Board)

This Prezi presentation is useful to any teacher introducing students to the basics of annotating art. The presentation covers annotating for both formal elements and historical/cultural significance.

Film Study Worksheets (TeachWithMovies.org)

This resource contains links to a general film study worksheet, as well as specific worksheets for novel adaptations, historical films, documentaries, and more. These resources are appropriate for advanced middle school students and some high school students. 

Annotation Practice Worksheet (La Guardia Community College)

This worksheet has a sample text and instructions for students to annotate it. It is a useful resource for teachers who want to give their students a chance to practice, but don't have the time to select an appropriate piece of text. 

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Annotating Texts

What is annotation.

Annotation can be:

  • A systematic summary of the text that you create within the document
  • A key tool for close reading that helps you uncover patterns, notice important words, and identify main points
  • An active learning strategy that improves comprehension and retention of information

Why annotate?

  • Isolate and organize important material
  • Identify key concepts
  • Monitor your learning as you read
  • Make exam prep effective and streamlined
  • Can be more efficient than creating a separate set of reading notes

How do you annotate?

Summarize key points in your own words .

  • Use headers and words in bold to guide you
  • Look for main ideas, arguments, and points of evidence
  • Notice how the text organizes itself. Chronological order? Idea trees? Etc.

Circle key concepts and phrases

  • What words would it be helpful to look-up at the end?
  • What terms show up in lecture? When are different words used for similar concepts? Why?

Write brief comments and questions in the margins

  • Be as specific or broad as you would like—use these questions to activate your thinking about the content
  • See our handout on reading comprehension tips for some examples

Use abbreviations and symbols

  • Try ? when you have a question or something you need to explore further
  • Try ! When something is interesting, a connection, or otherwise worthy of note
  • Try * For anything that you might use as an example or evidence when you use this information.
  • Ask yourself what other system of symbols would make sense to you.

Highlight/underline

  • Highlight or underline, but mindfully. Check out our resource on strategic highlighting for tips on when and how to highlight.

Use comment and highlight features built into pdfs, online/digital textbooks, or other apps and browser add-ons

  • Are you using a pdf? Explore its highlight, edit, and comment functions to support your annotations
  • Some browsers have add-ons or extensions that allow you to annotate web pages or web-based documents
  • Does your digital or online textbook come with an annotation feature?
  • Can your digital text be imported into a note-taking tool like OneNote, EverNote, or Google Keep? If so, you might be able to annotate texts in those apps

What are the most important takeaways?

  • Annotation is about increasing your engagement with a text
  • Increased engagement, where you think about and process the material then expand on your learning, is how you achieve mastery in a subject
  • As you annotate a text, ask yourself: how would I explain this to a friend?
  • Put things in your own words and draw connections to what you know and wonder

The table below demonstrates this process using a geography textbook excerpt (Press 2004):

A chart featuring a passage from a text in the left column and then columns that illustrate annotations that include too much writing, not enough writing, and a good balance of writing.

A common concern about annotating texts: It takes time!

Yes, it can, but that time isn’t lost—it’s invested.

Spending the time to annotate on the front end does two important things:

  • It saves you time later when you’re studying. Your annotated notes will help speed up exam prep, because you can review critical concepts quickly and efficiently.
  • It increases the likelihood that you will retain the information after the course is completed. This is especially important when you are supplying the building blocks of your mind and future career.

One last tip: Try separating the reading and annotating processes! Quickly read through a section of the text first, then go back and annotate.

Works consulted:

Nist, S., & Holschuh, J. (2000). Active learning: strategies for college success. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 202-218.

Simpson, M., & Nist, S. (1990). Textbook annotation: An effective and efficient study strategy for college students. Journal of Reading, 34: 122-129.

Press, F. (2004). Understanding earth (4th ed). New York: W.H. Freeman. 208-210.

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Annotating text: The complete guide to close reading

Annotating text: The complete guide to close reading

As students, researchers, and self-learners, we understand the power of reading and taking smart notes . But what happens when we combine those together? This is where annotating text comes in.

Annotated text is a written piece that includes additional notes and commentary from the reader. These notes can be about anything from the author's style and tone to the main themes of the work. By providing context and personal reactions, annotations can turn a dry text into a lively conversation.

Creating text annotations during close readings can help you follow the author's argument or thesis and make it easier to find critical points and supporting evidence. Plus, annotating your own texts in your own words helps you to better understand and remember what you read.

This guide will take a closer look at annotating text, discuss why it's useful, and how you can apply a few helpful strategies to develop your annotating system.

What does annotating text mean?

Annotating text: yellow pen and a yellow notebook

Text annotation refers to adding notes, highlights, or comments to a text. This can be done using a physical copy in textbooks or printable texts. Or you can annotate digitally through an online document or e-reader.

Generally speaking, annotating text allows readers to interact with the content on a deeper level, engaging with the material in a way that goes beyond simply reading it. There are different levels of annotation, but all annotations should aim to do one or more of the following:

  • Summarize the key points of the text
  • Identify evidence or important examples
  • Make connections to other texts or ideas
  • Think critically about the author's argument
  • Make predictions about what might happen next

When done effectively, annotation can significantly improve your understanding of a text and your ability to remember what you have read.

What are the benefits of annotation?

There are many reasons why someone might wish to annotate a document. It's commonly used as a study strategy and is often taught in English Language Arts (ELA) classes. Students are taught how to annotate texts during close readings to identify key points, evidence, and main ideas.

In addition, this reading strategy is also used by those who are researching for self-learning or professional growth. Annotating texts can help you keep track of what you’ve read and identify the parts most relevant to your needs. Even reading for pleasure can benefit from annotation, as it allows you to keep track of things you might want to remember or add to your personal knowledge management system .

Annotating has many benefits, regardless of your level of expertise. When you annotate, you're actively engaging with the text, which can help you better understand and learn new things . Additionally, annotating can save you time by allowing you to identify the most essential points of a text before starting a close reading or in-depth analysis.

There are few studies directly on annotation, but the body of research is growing. In one 2022 study, specific annotation strategies increased student comprehension , engagement, and academic achievement. Students who annotated read slower, which helped them break down texts and visualize key points. This helped students focus, think critically , and discuss complex content.

Annotation can also be helpful because it:

  • Allows you to quickly refer back to important points in the text without rereading the entire thing
  • Helps you to make connections between different texts and ideas
  • Serves as a study aid when preparing for exams or writing essays
  • Identifies gaps in your understanding so that you can go back and fill them in

The process of annotating text can make your reading experience more fruitful. Adding comments, questions, and associations directly to the text makes the reading process more active and enjoyable.

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How do you annotate text?

2 pens and 2 notebooks

There are many different ways to annotate while reading. The traditional method of annotating uses highlighters, markers, and pens to underline, highlight, and write notes in paper books. Modern methods have now gone digital with apps and software. You can annotate on many note-taking apps, as well as online documents like Google Docs.

While there are documented benefits of handwritten notes, recent research shows that digital methods are effective as well. Among college students in an introductory college writing course, those with more highlighting on digital texts correlated with better reading comprehension than those with more highlighted sections on paper.

No matter what method you choose, the goal is always to make your reading experience more active, engaging, and productive. To do so, the process can be broken down into three simple steps:

  • Do the first read-through without annotating to get a general understanding of the material.
  • Reread the text and annotate key points, evidence, and main ideas.
  • Review your annotations to deepen your understanding of the text.

Of course, there are different levels of annotation, and you may only need to do some of the three steps. For example, if you're reading for pleasure, you might only annotate key points and passages that strike you as interesting or important. Alternatively, if you're trying to simplify complex information in a detailed text, you might annotate more extensively.

The type of annotation you choose depends on your goals and preferences. The key is to create a plan that works for you and stick with it.

Annotation strategies to try

When annotating text, you can use a variety of strategies. The best method for you will depend on the text itself, your reason for reading, and your personal preferences. Start with one of these common strategies if you don't know where to begin.

  • Questioning: As you read, note any questions that come to mind as you engage in critical thinking . These could be questions about the author's argument, the evidence they use, or the implications of their ideas.
  • Summarizing: Write a brief summary of the main points after each section or chapter. This is a great way to check your understanding, help you process information , and identify essential information to reference later.
  • Paraphrasing: In addition to (or instead of) summaries, try paraphrasing key points in your own words. This will help you better understand the material and make it easier to reference later.
  • Connecting: Look for connections between different parts of the text or other ideas as you read. These could be things like similarities, contrasts, or implications. Make a note of these connections so that you can easily reference them later.
  • Visualizing: Sometimes, it can be helpful to annotate text visually by drawing pictures or taking visual notes . This can be especially helpful when trying to make connections between different ideas.
  • Responding: Another way to annotate is to jot down your thoughts and reactions as you read. This can be a great way to personally engage with the material and identify any areas you need clarification on.

Combining the three-step annotation process with one or more strategies can create a customized, powerful reading experience tailored to your specific needs.

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7 tips for effective annotations

HIGHLIGHT spelled using letter tiles

Once you've gotten the hang of the annotating process and know which strategies you'd like to use, there are a few general tips you can follow to make the annotation process even more effective.

1. Read with a purpose. Before you start annotating, take a moment to consider what you're hoping to get out of the text. Do you want to gain a general overview? Are you looking for specific information? Once you know what you're looking for, you can tailor your annotations accordingly.

2. Be concise. When annotating text, keep it brief and focus on the most important points. Otherwise, you risk annotating too much, which can feel a bit overwhelming, like having too many tabs open . Limit yourself to just a few annotations per page until you get a feel for what works for you.

3. Use abbreviations and symbols. You can use abbreviations and symbols to save time and space when annotating digitally. If annotating on paper, you can use similar abbreviations or symbols or write in the margins. For example, you might use ampersands, plus signs, or question marks.

4. Highlight or underline key points. Use highlighting or underlining to draw attention to significant passages in the text. This can be especially helpful when reviewing a text for an exam or essay. Try using different colors for each read-through or to signify different meanings.

5. Be specific. Vague annotations aren't very helpful. Make sure your note-taking is clear and straightforward so you can easily refer to them later. This may mean including specific inferences, key points, or questions in your annotations.

6. Connect ideas. When reading, you'll likely encounter ideas that connect to things you already know. When these connections occur, make a note of them. Use symbols or even sticky notes to connect ideas across pages. Annotating this way can help you see the text in a new light and make connections that you might not have otherwise considered.

7. Write in your own words. When annotating, copying what the author says verbatim can be tempting. However, it's more helpful to write, summarize or paraphrase in your own words. This will force you to engage your information processing system and gain a deeper understanding.

These tips can help you annotate more effectively and get the most out of your reading. However, it’s important to remember that, just like self-learning , there is no one "right" way to annotate. The process is meant to enrich your reading comprehension and deepen your understanding, which is highly individual. Most importantly, your annotating system should be helpful and meaningful for you.

Engage your learning like never before by learning how to annotate text

Learning to effectively annotate text is a powerful tool that can improve your reading, self-learning , and study strategies. Using an annotating system that includes text annotations and note-taking during close reading helps you actively engage with the text, leading to a deeper understanding of the material.

Try out different annotation strategies and find what works best for you. With practice, annotating will become second nature and you'll reap all the benefits this powerful tool offers.

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how to annotate text while reading

How to annotate text while reading: 11 strategies

Katie Azevedo May 10, 2017 note-taking , reading comprehension , study skills

By Katie Azevedo, M.Ed.

Annotating a book or an article is a fundamental school habit that you’ll want to develop as early as possible. As you move through school and your texts get harder and harder, you’ll need to know how to annotate text while reading.

First things first: Annotating means taking notes on a text – – either on a book or an article or something similar. So to annotate means to take notes .

You might be wondering why the heck you would annotate anyway(?). For so many reasons ! The most important reason you would annotate is for a deep understanding of the material. Taking notes on your text helps you comprehend what you’re reading on a much deeper level than if you were to just read it straight through.

In this tutorial I’m teaching you how to annotate, but to get the most complete instruction, be sure to avoid these 6 common annotation mistakes .

 4 major benefits of annotating:

  • It keeps you awake and engaged as you read, and reduces your chances of “fake reading syndrome.”
  • It helps you process what you’re reading as you’re reading it.
  • It slows down your reading, which is actually a good thing. Decreasing your pace can often increase your comprehension and retention.
  • It double-whammies as a way to quickly find information later on . In other words, when you go back into the book to find something later, you can just read your annotations, which is faster than reading the actual text a second time through.

So how do you annotate? There are so many ways. Just as there are so many types of learners, there are so many techniques that suit different students. You might have to experiment for a while to see what does and does not work for you, but there are some basic annotation principals, or rules, to keep in mind as you figure out your own system.

How to annotate text while reading: 11 annotation strategies you might find helpful:

  • Circle unfamiliar words. Then look them up, and write down the definition.
  • Use question marks to indicate areas of uncertainty.
  • Use stars to indicate anything that seems important, such as themes, symbols, foreshadowing, etc.
  • Use exclamation points to indicate something dramatic, or a key turning point.
  • Circle character names any time they are introduced for the first time.
  • Keep a list somewhere, maybe on the inside cover, of all the characters and their traits. Add to this list as new characters are introduced, or as you learn more about existing characters.
  • Write your notes in the margins (best method), on sticky-notes (decent method), or in a separate notebook (least favorable method).
  • Paraphrase (summarize) each chapter after you finish reading it. You only need a few sentences to do this. Write it down at the beginning or end of the chapter.
  • Write down any questions you have about the text – either questions you’re willing to wait to find out the answer to as you read further, or questions you want to bring up to your teacher in class the next day.
  • Use a color-coded system if that type of thing appeals to you. (Colors! Yes!)
  • Give each chapter a title. After you finish reading each chapter, go back to its title page and give it a title. The title should simply be the main idea of the chapter, or a statement about the main event in the chapter. If the chapter already has a title, it’s likely just catchy and not helpful, so still go ahead and title it yourself.
  • BONUS TIP: Become a master of the Highlight and Rewrite Strategy .

Note: If you’re reading a text on your tablet or ipad, you can still annotate! There are so many cool apps that allow you to circle, underline, highlight, doodle, whatever. Just do a basic search for “annotation apps” and you’ll find a bunch. iannotatepdf is a good one, as is LuminPDF and Notability.

One of the most important annotation strategies

When you’re reading and annotating, keep in mind that your notes should represent your thoughts . Your notes should represent your interaction with the story, the author, the characters, etc. Don’t worry about writing down “smart-sounding” notes just because you think that’s what your teacher wants. Let your annotations really reflect your true thoughts and feelings as you read. If you really listen to your inner voice as you read – the voice that says “Huh? Why did that happen?” or “That’s awesome!” or “That’s not a good sign,” then the whole process of annotating is so much easier.

Annotating text is a skill that gets easier the more you do it. As you first start off, you might not annotate much at all because you’re not sure where to start. (If that’s the case, keep checking back to my list of 11 annotation techniques to remind yourself of how to do it.) And it’s okay to be reserved as you start – you’ll figure it out soon enough.

But I’ve also seen the opposite, where a student underlines every single word on a page, or highlights the entire article or chapter. When you do this, nothing stands out, which defeats the purpose of taking notes in the first place.

Also, while annotating is an excellent skill that allows you to get that deep, close understanding of a text, you don’t need to do it all the time . If you’re reading a book for pleasure, just relax and read the book. If you’re reading an article in one of your favorite magazines, just relax and read the article. No need to make a job out of something that’s supposed to bring you joy.

Learning how to annotate text while reading can bring your reading comprehension to the next level. Try it. Why not?

If you’re struggling with taking notes during class , then check out my tutorials on that type of annotation:

  • How to take notes in a lecture class
  • How to know what to write down
  • Note-taking tips for students with ADHD

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Annotating a text, or marking the pages with notes, is an excellent, if not essential, way to make the most out of the reading you do for college courses. Annotations make it easy to find important information quickly when you look back and review a text. They help you familiarize yourself with both the content and organization of what you read. They provide a way to begin engaging with ideas and issues directly through comments, questions, associations, or other reactions that occur to you as you read. In all these ways, annotating a text makes the reading process an active one, not just background for writing assignments, but an integral first step in the writing process.

A well-annotated text will accomplish all of the following:

  • clearly identify where in the text important ideas and information are located
  • express the main ideas of a text
  • trace the development of ideas/arguments throughout a text
  • introduce a few of the reader’s thoughts and reactions

Ideally, you should read a text through once before making major annotations. You may just want to circle unfamiliar vocabulary or concepts. This way, you will have a clearer idea about where major ideas and important information are in the text, and your annotating will be more efficient.

A brief description and discussion of four ways of annotating a text— highlighting/underlining, paraphrase/summary of main ideas, descriptive outline, and comments/responses —and a sample annotated text follow:

HIGHLIGHTING/UNDERLINING

Highlighting or underlining key words and phrases or major ideas is the most common form of annotating texts. Many people use this method to make it easier to review material, especially for exams. Highlighting is also a good way of picking out specific language within a text that you may want to cite or quote in a piece of writing. However, over-reliance on highlighting is unwise for two reasons. First, there is a tendency to highlight more information than necessary, especially when done on a first reading. Second, highlighting is the least active form of annotating. Instead of being a way to begin thinking and interacting with ideas in texts, highlighting can become a postponement of that process.

On the other hand, highlighting is a useful way of marking parts of a text that you want to make notes about. And it’s a good idea to highlight the words or phrases of a text that are referred to by your other annotations.

PARAPHRASE/SUMMARY OF MAIN IDEAS

Going beyond locating important ideas to being able to capture their meaning through paraphrase is a way of solidifying your understanding of these ideas. It’s also excellent preparation for any writing you may have to do based on your reading. A series of brief notes in the margins beside important ideas gives you a handy summary right on the pages of the text itself, and if you can take the substance of a sentence or paragraph and condense it into a few words, you should have little trouble clearly demonstrating your understanding of the ideas in question in your own writing.

DESCRIPTIVE OUTLINE

A descriptive outline shows the organization of a piece of writing, breaking it down to show where ideas are introduced and where they are developed. A descriptive outline allows you to see not only where the main ideas are but also where the details, facts, explanations, and other kinds of support for those ideas are located.

A descriptive outline will focus on the function of individual paragraphs or sections within a text. These functions might include any of the following:

  • summarizing a topic/argument/etc.
  • introducing an idea
  • adding explanation
  • giving examples
  • providing factual evidence
  • expanding or limiting the idea
  • considering an opposing view
  • dismissing a contrary view
  • creating a transition
  • stating a conclusion

This list is hardly exhaustive and it’s important to recognize that several of these functions may be repeated within a text, particularly ones that contain more than one major idea.

Making a descriptive outline allows you to follow the construction of the writer’s argument and/or the process of his/her thinking. It helps identify which parts of the text work together and how they do so.

COMMENTS/RESPONSES

You can use annotation to go beyond understanding a text’s meaning and organization by noting your reactions—agreement/disagreement, questions, related personal experience, connection to ideas from other texts, class discussions, etc. This is an excellent way to begin formulating your own ideas for writing assignments based on the text or on any of the ideas it contains.

english annotation techniques

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How to Annotate

Last Updated: October 31, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Alexander Peterman, MA and by wikiHow staff writer, Hannah Madden . Alexander Peterman is a Private Tutor in Florida. He received his MA in Education from the University of Florida in 2017. There are 9 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 334,855 times.

Slogging through a tough text is hard, and it can be even harder if you aren’t retaining the information. Annotating text is a purposeful note taking system that encourages close reading and literary analysis. When you go back to review a book or article, your annotations should help you find important information and jog your memory about relevant information. Your annotation system can be highly personalized, but you should establish your method before you start to read to make it easier on yourself.

Sample Annotations

english annotation techniques

Highlighting Important Information

Step 1 Read the assignment carefully to identify priorities.

  • Clearly annotate the thesis and key parts of the argument in an essay. Underline evidence that you find questionable. This will be useful if you want to argue that the author’s thesis is wrong.
  • Annotations on works of literature usually identify plot, character, and theme. However, they can also include setting, vocabulary and figurative language.
  • If you are reading for pleasure, highlight points that you found very interesting and that you might want to go back to. Consider, for example, annotating quotes that you really like and might want to use later. In addition, if you run across a big idea that changes the way you think, highlight it so that you can return to it.

Step 2 Read closely

  • Slow down. Read aloud verbally or in your mind. Don't skim through the text.
  • You can also underline key terms or put brackets around longer phrases.

Step 3 Highlight the theme or thesis.

  • In an essay, the thesis is typically in the first paragraph, but not always. It summarizes the main point or idea of the essay.
  • The theme won't be a sentence. Instead, look for the repetition of certain ideas or significant passages (usually during the climax of the story).

Step 4 Keep writing utensils on you at all times.

  • Pens aren’t great since you can't erase it if you make a mistake. It may also take away from the sell-back value if this is a textbook.
  • If you choose to use a pen, consider blue. It will stand out from the black text of the book, but it won't detract from it, like hot pink or purple might.
  • If you can’t stand to write directly into your book, use Post-It notes instead.

Step 5 Highlight important passages.

  • Most e-book readers will allow you to highlight passages. Some will even allow you to use multiple colors when highlighting the text.
  • If you don't have a highlighter, put brackets around the passage instead. You can do this with a pencil or a colored ballpoint pen (i.e.: pink, purple, blue, red, etc).
  • If you're a visual learner, you can also artistically annotate important passages by drawing them and then writing an explanation of what your drawing is.
  • Stick to highlighting super important information. If your entire text is covered in highlighter, you won’t be able to figure out what’s actually important.

Step 6 Use different techniques to identify characters or literary tropes.

  • For example, you may want to circle new vocabulary, box figurative language, underline thematic statements, and place parentheses around descriptions of settings.
  • You can use different color highlighters to identify text relevant to character, theme, or setting. You can also use different color highlighters to identify important statements about different characters.
  • You can create different symbols to make it easier to identify relevant pages. For example, an asterisk in the margins or top of the page could identify pages with major parts of the argument. You can use arrows to point to quotes that you know you will use during the essay.

Step 7 Create a legend for your annotations.

  • For an e-reader, write a note at the beginning of the text.
  • Be as consistent as you can with your symbols so you understand what you were trying to say.

Taking Notes

Step 1 Write out your own original ideas in the margins.

  • A common mistake with annotations is to underline too much and take too few notes. Your notes will help you to make important connections that you can refer to later. Otherwise, you might forget what it was that you found to be important about the underlined section.

Step 2 Make predictions as you read.

  • You won't always have to do this, especially if it is an essay.
  • Consider making your predictions on Post-it notes or on a separate sheet of paper. This will free up your margins for more important information.

Step 3 Keep an index of key information.

  • Keep a list of themes and important figurative elements. This is especially important if you are going to be asked to do a literary analysis or write an essay. You can write these on a separate piece of paper, or on a blank page in the front of the book.
  • While you're reading the text, keep track of moments when major characters change or evolve.
  • List comments and page numbers under each theme. The more detailed you are, the easier it will be to write a paper and provide evidence.

Step 4 Summarize the important points of each chapter.

  • In a book, you can write this in the space between chapters. For e-books, write notes at the end of the text in the chapter. You can also write comments on a separate piece of paper or in a word file.
  • You can also make a list of reflective questions to ask yourself at the end of every chapter so it's easier to summarize them.

Using Annotations to Understand a Tough Text

Step 1 Write down questions that you have.

  • Write these in the margins in pencil or on a separate sheet of paper.
  • When you get the answer, go back and write it under the question. If it's too long, write the page or paragraph number that the answer can be found on.

Step 2 Write definitions.

  • If there is enough space, you can write the definition under the passage. For example, text books often have several line breaks between paragraphs. Take advantage of these.
  • Take note of any key terms as well. Mark these in the passage so that you can see how they are used.

Step 3  Record new vocabulary words

  • You can write these directly next to the words as they appear, or you can keep a list on a separate piece of paper to look back on later.

Step 4 Number important steps in plot development or argument.

  • If, for example, you are reading a book on chemistry, you could number each step necessary to produce a chemical reaction.

Annotating Digital Text

Step 1 Highlight and write directly onto a PDF.

  • If you’re using a tablet, you can write on the margins of the PDF with a stylus to take notes.

Step 2 Download a browser extension to annotate texts online.

  • Diigo, A.nnotate, and Kindle for PC are a few popular browser extensions for annotation.
  • You should note that these browser extensions will often not let you annotate PDFs or word files—they’re for web pages only.

Step 3 Annotate directly onto a Zoom meeting.

  • Once your annotations are turned on, you can use a pen tool, highlight tool, and even share your screen with others so they can see your notes.
  • You can also annotate on the Zoom app if you’re using a mobile device.

Community Q&A

Community Answer

  • When annotating a book, add your opinion and what you feel about a particular sentence. Thanks Helpful 3 Not Helpful 0
  • Remember to erase pencil notations before returning the book to a library or school classroom. Thanks Helpful 3 Not Helpful 2

english annotation techniques

You Might Also Like

Take Better Notes

  • ↑ https://www.kellogg.edu/upload/eng151text/chapter/text-how-to-annotate/index.html
  • ↑ https://www.covcath.org/uploaded/06_Students/Annotation_Guide_AP_Language.pdf
  • ↑ https://www.hunter.cuny.edu/rwc/handouts/the-writing-process-1/invention/Annotating-a-Text/
  • ↑ https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/annotating-texts/
  • ↑ http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/rwc/handouts/the-writing-process-1/invention/Annotating-a-Text/
  • ↑ https://research.ewu.edu/writers_c_read_study_strategies
  • ↑ https://www.chino.k12.ca.us/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=34965&dataid=72719&FileName=Annotation%20Guidelines.pdf
  • ↑ https://techstyle.lmc.gatech.edu/how-to-annotate-digital-texts/
  • ↑ https://support.zoom.us/hc/en-us/articles/115005706806-Using-annotation-tools-on-a-shared-screen-or-whiteboard

About This Article

Alexander Peterman, MA

Before you annotate a text, read it thoroughly so you can identify the main points or themes that you want to focus on. Next, highlight important passages and use different markings to identify things you want to make note of. For example, you can circle the names of any new characters as they appear, or underline statements relating to the theme. Then, create a legend by listing what each type of annotation means so that you can quickly find it again later. Finally, write an index of your notes on the text by writing down the page numbers and a short description of your observation on a separate paper. For tips from our Education reviewer on how to summarize each chapter in a text, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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7 Strategies for Teaching Students How to Annotate

  • November 7, 2018

For many educators, annotation goes hand in hand with developing close reading skills. Annotation more fully engages students and increases reading comprehension strategies, helping students develop a deeper understanding and appreciation for literature.

However, it’s also one of the more difficult skills to teach. In order to think critically about a text, students need to learn how to actively engage with the text they’re reading. Annotation provides that immersive experience, and new digital reading technologies not only make annotation easier than ever, but also make it possible for any book, article, or text to be annotated.

Below are seven strategies to help your students master the basics of annotation and become more engaged, closer readers.

1. Teach the Basics of Good Annotation

Help your students understand that annotation is simply the process of thoughtful reading and making notes as they study a text. Start with some basic forms of annotation:

  • highlighting a phrase or sentence and including a comment
  • circling a word that needs defining
  • posing a question when something isn’t fully understood
  • writing a short summary of a key section

Assure them that good annotating will help them concentrate and better understand what they read and better remember their thoughts and ideas when they revisit the text.

2. Model Effective Annotation

One of the most effective ways to teach annotation is to show students your own thought process when annotating a text. Display a sample text and think out loud as you make notes. Show students how you might underline key words or sentences and write comments or questions, and explain what you’re thinking as you go through the reading and annotation process.

Annotation Activity: Project a short, simple text and let students come up and write their own comments and discuss what they’ve written and why. This type of modeling and interaction helps students understand the thought process that critical reading requires.

3. Give Your Students a Reading Checklist

When first teaching students about annotation, you can help shape their critical analysis and active reading strategies by giving them specific things to look for while reading, like a checklist or annotation worksheet for a text. You might have them explain how headings and subheads connect with the text, or have them identify facts that add to their understanding.

4. Provide an Annotation Rubric

When you know what your annotation goals are for your students, it can be useful to develop a simple rubric that defines what high-quality and thoughtful annotation looks like. This provides guidance for your students and makes grading easier for you. You can modify your rubric as goals and students’ needs change over time.

5. Keep It Simple

Especially for younger or struggling readers, help your students develop self-confidence by keeping things simple. Ask them to circle a word they don’t know, look up that word in the dictionary, and write the definition in a comment. They can also write an opinion on a particular section, so there’s no right or wrong answer.

6. Teach Your Students How to Annotate a PDF

Or other digital texts. Most digital reading platforms include a number of tools that make annotation easy. These include highlighters, text comments, sticky notes, mark up tools for underlining, circling, or drawing boxes, and many more. If you don’t have a digital reading platform, you can also teach how to annotate a basic PDF text using simple annotation tools like highlights or comments.

7. Make It Fun!

The more creative you get with annotation, the more engaged your students will be. So have some fun with it!

  • Make a scavenger hunt by listing specific components to identify
  • Color code concepts and have students use multicolored highlighters
  • Use stickers to represent and distinguish the five story elements: character, setting, plot, conflict, and theme
  • Choose simple symbols to represent concepts, and let students draw those as illustrated annotations: a magnifying glass could represent clues in the text, a key an important idea, and a heart could indicate a favorite part

Annotation Activity: Create a dice game where students have to find concepts and annotate them based on the number they roll. For example, 1 = Circle and define a word you don’t know, 2 = Underline a main character, 3 = Highlight the setting, etc.

Teaching students how to annotate gives them an invaluable tool for actively engaging with a text. It helps them think more critically, it increases retention, and it instills confidence in their ability to analyze more complex texts.

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  • How to Write an Annotation

One of the greatest challenges students face is adjusting to college reading expectations.  Unlike high school, students in college are expected to read more “academic” type of materials in less time and usually recall the information as soon as the next class.

The problem is many students spend hours reading and have no idea what they just read.  Their eyes are moving across the page, but their mind is somewhere else. The end result is wasted time, energy, and frustration…and having to read the text again.

Although students are taught  how to read  at an early age, many are not taught  how to actively engage  with written text or other media. Annotation is a tool to help you learn how to actively engage with a text or other media.

View the following video about how to annotate a text.

Annotating a text or other media (e.g. a video, image, etc.) is as much about you as it is the text you are annotating. What are YOUR responses to the author’s writing, claims and ideas? What are YOU thinking as you consider the work? Ask questions, challenge, think!

When we annotate an author’s work, our minds should encounter the mind of the author, openly and freely. If you met the author at a party, what would you like to tell to them; what would you like to ask them? What do you think they would say in response to your comments? You can be critical of the text, but you do not have to be. If you are annotating properly, you often begin to get ideas that have little or even nothing to do with the topic you are annotating. That’s fine: it’s all about generating insights and ideas of your own. Any good insight is worth keeping because it may make for a good essay or research paper later on.

The Secret is in the Pen

One of the ways proficient readers read is with a pen in hand. They know their purpose is to keep their attention on the material by:

  • Predicting  what the material will be about
  • Questioning  the material to further understanding
  • Determining  what’s important
  • Identifying  key vocabulary
  • Summarizing  the material in their own words, and
  • Monitoring  their comprehension (understanding) during and after engaging with the material

The same applies for mindfully viewing a film, video, image or other media.

Annotating a Text

Review the video, “How to Annotate a Text.”  Pay attention to both how to make annotations and what types of thoughts and ideas may be part of your annotations as you actively read a written text.

Example Assignment Format: Annotating a Written Text

For the annotation of reading assignments in this class, you will cite and comment on a minimum of FIVE (5) phrases, sentences or passages from notes you take on the selected readings.

Here is an example format for an assignment to annotate a written text:

Example Assignment Format: Annotating Media

In addition to annotating written text, at times you will have assignments to annotate media (e.g., videos, images or other media). For the annotation of media assignments in this class, you will cite and comment on a minimum of THREE (3) statements, facts, examples, research or any combination of those from the notes you take about selected media.

Here is an example format for an assignment to annotate media:

  • Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : http://www.lumenlearning.com/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
  • Authored by : Paul Powell . Provided by : Central Community College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
  • Authored by : Elisabeth Ellington and Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer . Provided by : Chadron State College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
  • Annotating a Text. Authored by : HaynesEnglish. Located at : http://youtu.be/pf9CTJj9dCM . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube license
  • How to Annotate a Text. Authored by : Kthiebau90. Located at : http://youtu.be/IzrWOj0gWHU . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
  • Table of Contents

Instructor Resources (Access Requires Login)

  • Overview of Instructor Resources

An Overview of the Writing Process

  • Introduction to the Writing Process
  • Introduction to Writing
  • Your Role as a Learner
  • What is an Essay?
  • Reading to Write
  • Defining the Writing Process
  • Videos: Prewriting Techniques
  • Thesis Statements
  • Organizing an Essay
  • Creating Paragraphs
  • Conclusions
  • Editing and Proofreading
  • Matters of Grammar, Mechanics, and Style
  • Peer Review Checklist
  • Comparative Chart of Writing Strategies

Using Sources

  • Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism
  • Formatting the Works Cited Page (MLA)
  • Citing Paraphrases and Summaries (APA)
  • APA Citation Style, 6th edition: General Style Guidelines

Definition Essay

  • Definitional Argument Essay
  • How to Write a Definition Essay
  • Critical Thinking
  • Video: Thesis Explained
  • Effective Thesis Statements
  • Student Sample: Definition Essay

Narrative Essay

  • Introduction to Narrative Essay
  • Student Sample: Narrative Essay
  • "Shooting an Elephant" by George Orwell
  • "Sixty-nine Cents" by Gary Shteyngart
  • Video: The Danger of a Single Story
  • How to Write a Summary
  • Writing for Success: Narration

Illustration/Example Essay

  • Introduction to Illustration/Example Essay
  • "She's Your Basic L.O.L. in N.A.D" by Perri Klass
  • "April & Paris" by David Sedaris
  • Writing for Success: Illustration/Example
  • Student Sample: Illustration/Example Essay

Compare/Contrast Essay

  • Introduction to Compare/Contrast Essay
  • "Disability" by Nancy Mairs
  • "Friending, Ancient or Otherwise" by Alex Wright
  • "A South African Storm" by Allison Howard
  • Writing for Success: Compare/Contrast
  • Student Sample: Compare/Contrast Essay

Cause-and-Effect Essay

  • Introduction to Cause-and-Effect Essay
  • "Cultural Baggage" by Barbara Ehrenreich
  • "Women in Science" by K.C. Cole
  • Writing for Success: Cause and Effect
  • Student Sample: Cause-and-Effect Essay

Argument Essay

  • Introduction to Argument Essay
  • Rogerian Argument
  • "The Case Against Torture," by Alisa Soloman
  • "The Case for Torture" by Michael Levin
  • How to Write a Summary by Paraphrasing Source Material
  • Writing for Success: Argument
  • Student Sample: Argument Essay
  • Grammar/Mechanics Mini-lessons
  • Mini-lesson: Subjects and Verbs, Irregular Verbs, Subject Verb Agreement
  • Mini-lesson: Sentence Types
  • Mini-lesson: Fragments I
  • Mini-lesson: Run-ons and Comma Splices I
  • Mini-lesson: Comma Usage
  • Mini-lesson: Parallelism
  • Mini-lesson: The Apostrophe
  • Mini-lesson: Capital Letters
  • Grammar Practice - Interactive Quizzes
  • De Copia - Demonstration of the Variety of Language
  • Style Exercise: Voice

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6 Annotating and Taking Notes

An open book with notes hand written in the margins.

You can jot down questions and ideas as they come to you.

You might underline important sections, circle words you don’t understand, and use your own set of symbols to highlight portions that you feel are important.

Capturing these ideas as they occur to you is important, for they may play a role in not just understanding the text better but also in your college assignments. If you don’t make notes as you go, today’s great observation will likely become tomorrow’s forgotten detail.

Important note : most academic institution bookstores approve of textual annotation and don’t think it decreases a textbook’s value. In other words, you can annotate a textbook and still sell it back to the bookstore later on if you choose to. Note that I say most—if you have questions about your own institution and plan to sell back any textbooks, be sure to ask at the bookstore before you annotate.

If you can’t write on the text itself, you can accomplish almost the same thing by taking notes—either by hand (on paper) or e-notes. You might also choose to use sticky notes to capture your ideas—these can be stuck to specific pages for later recall. For a strategy that helps you take note of what you see as interesting or important points of a text while also responding to those points with your own ideas, see “ Dialectic Note-taking ” in this text.

Many students use brightly-coloured highlighting pens to mark up texts. These are better than nothing, but in truth, they’re not much help. Using them creates big swaths of eye-popping colour in your text, but when you later go back to them, you may not remember why they were highlighted. Writing in the text with a simple pen or pencil is always preferable.

What about e-books? Most of them have on-board tools for note-taking as well as providing dictionary and even encyclopedia access.

Many students also like to keep a reading journal . A good way to use these is to write a quick summary of your reading immediately after you’ve finished. Capture the reading’s main points and discuss any questions you had or any ideas that were raised. Include the author and title, and write out an MLA citation for the source (see the appendix, Creating a Works Cited Page ).

Exercise: Check Your Understanding of Annotation

Print a hard copy of the CBC News article, “ New Westminster offers $4M worth of free land for affordable housing .” If you aren’t able to print a hard copy, carry out the following instructions using a piece of paper and a pen or pencil.

  • Pre-read the article to gather some first impression ideas. Then read the article completely, annotating as you go.
  • Underline what you believe to be the topic or thesis statement in the article. (The thesis statement is one or two sentences that summarizes the article’s main point and tells what it’s about. The thesis statement can occur anywhere in the article—even near the end.)
  • As you read, underline points that you find especially interesting. Make notes in the margins as ideas occur to you.
  • Write question marks in the margin where questions occur to you, and make written margin notes about them, too.
  • Circle all words you don’t understand. Then look them up! (Dictionary.com is a good online dictionary and even pronounces words so you’ll know how they sound.)
  • When you’re finished, write a quick summary—several sentences or a short paragraph—that captures the article’s main points.

Text Attributions

  • This chapter was adapted from “ Annotate and Take Notes ” in The Word on College Reading and Writing by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 Licence . Adapted by Allison Kilgannon.

Media Attributions

  • Words of Wisdom by AnneCN is licensed under a CC BY 2.0 Licence .

Advanced English by Allison Kilgannon is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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english annotation techniques

Labellerr

The Ultimate Guide to Text Annotation: Techniques, Tools, and Best Practices

Puneet Jindal

Puneet Jindal

Introduction.

Welcome to the realm where language meets machine intelligence : text annotation - the catalyst propelling artificial intelligence to understand, interpret, and communicate in human language. Evolving from editorial footnotes to a cornerstone in data science, text annotation now drives Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Computer Vision , reshaping industries across the globe.

Imagine AI models decoding sentiments, recognizing entities, and grasping human nuances in a text. Text annotation is the magical key to making this possible. Join us on this journey through text annotation - exploring its techniques, challenges, and the transformative potential it holds for healthcare, finance, government, logistics, and beyond.

In this exploration, witness text annotation's evolution and its pivotal role in fueling AI's understanding of language. Explore how tools such as Labellerr help in text annotation and work.  Let's unravel the artistry behind text annotation, shaping a future where AI comprehends, adapts, and innovates alongside human communication.

1. What is Text Annotation?

Text annotation is a crucial process that involves adding labels, comments, or metadata to textual data to facilitate machine learning algorithms' understanding and analysis.

This practice, known for its traditional role in editorial reviews by adding comments or footnotes to text drafts, has evolved significantly within the realm of data science, particularly in Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Computer Vision applications .

In the context of machine learning, text annotation takes on a more specific role. It involves systematically labeling pieces of text to create a reference dataset, enabling supervised machine learning algorithms to recognize patterns, learn from labeled data, and make accurate predictions or classifications when faced with new, unseen text.

To elaborate on what it means to annotate text: In data science and NLP, annotating text demands a comprehensive understanding of the problem domain and the dataset. It involves identifying and marking relevant features within the text. This can be akin to labeling images in image classification tasks, but in text, it includes categorizing sentences or segments into predefined classes or topics.

For instance, labeling sentiments in online reviews, distinguishing fake and real news articles, or marking parts of speech and named entities in text.

text annotation

1.1 Text Annotation Tasks: A Multifaceted Approach to Data Labeling

(i) Text Classification : Assigning predefined categories or labels to text segments based on their content, such as sentiment analysis or topic classification.

(ii) Named Entity Recognition (NER) : Identifying and labeling specific entities within the text, like names of people, organizations, locations, dates, etc.

(iii) Parts of Speech Tagging : Labeling words in a sentence with their respective grammatical categories, like nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.

(iv) Summarization : Condensing a lengthy text into a shorter, coherent version while retaining its key information.

1.2 Significant Benefits of Text Annotation

(i) Improved Machine Learning Models : Annotated data provides labeled examples for algorithms to learn from, enhancing their ability to make accurate predictions or classifications when faced with new, unlabeled text.

(ii) Enhanced Performance and Efficiency : Annotations expedite the learning process by offering clear indicators to algorithms, leading to improved performance and faster model convergence.

(iii) Nuance Recognition : Text annotations help algorithms understand contextual nuances, sarcasm, or subtle linguistic cues that might not be immediately apparent, enhancing their ability to interpret text accurately.

(iv) Applications in Various Industries : Text annotation is vital across industries, aiding in tasks like content moderation, sentiment analysis for customer feedback , information extraction for search engines , and much more.

Text annotation is a critical process in modern machine learning, empowering algorithms to comprehend, interpret, and extract valuable insights from textual data, thereby enabling various applications across different sectors.

2. Types of Text Annotation

Text Annotation Types

Text annotation, in the realm of data labeling and Natural Language Processing (NLP), encompasses a diverse range of techniques used to label, categorize, and extract meaningful information from textual data. This multifaceted process involves several types of annotations, each serving a distinct purpose in enhancing machine understanding and analysis of text.

Types of Text Annotation

These annotation types include sentiment annotation, intent annotation, entity annotation, text classification, linguistic annotation, named entity recognition (NER), part-of-speech tagging, keyphrase tagging, entity linking, document classification, language identification, and toxicity classification.

1. Sentiment Annotation

Sentiment annotation is a technique crucial for understanding emotions conveyed in text. Assigning sentiments like positive, negative, or neutral to sentences aids in sentiment analysis .

This process involves deciphering emotions in customer reviews on e-commerce platforms (e.g., Amazon, Flipkart), enabling businesses to gauge customer satisfaction.

Precise sentiment annotation is vital for training machine learning models that categorize texts into various emotions, facilitating a deeper understanding of user sentiments towards products or services.

Let's consider various instances where sentiment annotation encounters complexities:

Sentiment Annotation

(i) Clear Emotions: In the initial examples, emotions are distinctly evident. The first instance exudes happiness and positivity, while the second reflects disappointment and negative feelings. However, in the third case, emotions become intricate. Phrases like "nostalgic" or "bittersweet" evoke mixed sentiments, making it challenging to classify into a single emotion.

(ii) Success versus Failure: Analyzing phrases such as "Yay! Argentina beat France in the World Cup Finale" presents a paradox. Initially appearing positive, this sentence also implies negative emotions for the opposing side, complicating straightforward sentiment classification.

(iii) Sarcasm and Ridicule: Capturing sarcasm involves comprehending nuanced human communication styles, relying on context, tone, and social cues—characteristics often intricate for machines to interpret.

(iv) Rhetorical Questions: Phrases like "Why do we have to quibble every time?" may seem neutral initially. However, the speaker's tone and delivery convey a sense of frustration and negativity, posing challenges in categorizing the sentiment accurately.

(v) Quoting or Re-tweeting: Sentiment annotation confronts difficulties when dealing with quoted or retweeted content. The sentiment expressed might not align with the opinions of the one sharing the quote, creating discrepancies in sentiment classification.

In essence, sentiment annotation encounters challenges due to the complexity of human emotions, contextual nuances, and the subtleties of language expression, making accurate classification a demanding task for automated systems.

Intent Annotation

Intent annotation is a crucial aspect in the development of chatbots and virtual assistants , forming the backbone of their functionality. It involves labeling or categorizing user messages or sentences to identify the underlying purpose or intention behind the communication.

This annotation process aims to understand and extract the user's intent, enabling these AI systems to provide contextually relevant and accurate responses. Intent annotation involves labeling sentences to discern the user's intention behind a message. By annotating intents like greetings, complaints, or inquiries, systems can generate appropriate responses.

Intent Annotation

Key points regarding intent text annotation include:

Purpose Identification: Intent annotation involves categorizing user messages into specific intents such as greetings, inquiries, complaints, feedback, orders, or any other actionable user intents. Each category represents a different user goal or purpose within the conversation.

Training Data Creation: Creating labeled datasets is crucial for training machine learning models to recognize and classify intents accurately. Annotated datasets consist of labeled sentences or phrases paired with their corresponding intended purposes, forming the foundation for model training.

Contextual Understanding: Intent annotation often requires a deep understanding of contextual nuances within language. It's not solely about identifying keywords but comprehending the broader meaning and context of user queries or statements.

Natural Language Understanding (NLU) : It falls under the realm of natural language processing (NLP) and requires sophisticated algorithms capable of interpreting and categorizing user intents accurately. Machine learning models, such as classifiers or neural networks, are commonly used for this purpose.

Iterative Process: Annotation of intents often involves an iterative process. Initially, a set of intent categories is defined based on common user interactions. As the system encounters new user intents, the annotation process may expand or refine these categories to ensure comprehensive coverage.

Quality Assurance and Validation: It's essential to validate and ensure the quality of labeled data. This may involve multiple annotators labeling the same data independently to assess inter-annotator agreement and enhance annotation consistency.

Adaptation and Evolution: Intent annotation isn't a one-time task. As user behaviors, language use, and interaction patterns evolve, the annotated intents also need periodic review and adaptation to maintain accuracy and relevance.

Enhancing User Experience: Accurate intent annotation is pivotal in enhancing user experience. It enables chatbots and virtual assistants to understand user needs promptly and respond with relevant and helpful information or actions, improving overall user satisfaction.

Industry-Specific Customization: Intent annotation can be industry-specific. For instance, in healthcare, intents may include appointment scheduling, medication queries, or symptom descriptions, while in finance, intents may revolve around account inquiries, transaction history, or support requests.

Continuous Improvement: Feedback loops and analytics derived from user interactions help refine intent annotation. Analyzing user feedback on system responses can drive improvements in intent categorization and response generation.

For instance, Siri or Alexa, trained on annotated data for specific intents, responds accurately to user queries, enhancing user experience. Below are given examples:

  • Greeting Intent: Hello there, how are you?
  • Complaint Intent:  I am very disappointed with the service I received.
  • Inquiry Intent: What are your business hours?
  • Confirmation Intent:  Yes, I'd like to confirm my appointment for tomorrow at 10 AM.
  • Request Intent: Could you please provide me with the menu?
  • Gratitude Intent: Thank you so much for your help!
  • Feedback Intent:  I wanted to give feedback about the recent product purchase.
  • Apology Intent:  I'm sorry for the inconvenience caused.
  • Assistance Intent:  Can you assist me with setting up my account?
  • Goodbye Intent:  Goodbye, have a great day!

These annotations serve as training data for AI models to learn and understand different user intentions, enabling chatbots or virtual assistants to respond accurately and effectively.

Entity Annotation:

Entity annotation focuses on labeling key phrases, named entities, or parts of speech in text. This technique emphasizes crucial details in lengthy texts and aids in training models for entity extraction. Named entity recognition (NER) is a subset of entity annotation, labeling entities like people's names, locations, dates, etc., enabling machines to comprehend text more comprehensively by distinguishing semantic meanings.

Text Classification

Text classification assigns categories or labels to text segments. This annotation technique is essential for organizing text data into specific classes or topics, such as document classification or sentiment analysis. Categorizing tweets into education, politics, etc., helps organize content and enables better understanding.

Text Classification

Let's look at each of these forms separately.

Document Classification: This involves assigning a single label to a document, aiding in the efficient sorting of vast textual data based on its primary theme or content.

Product Categorization: It's the process of organizing products or services into specific classes or categories. This helps enhance search results in eCommerce platforms, improving SEO strategies and boosting visibility in product ranking pages.

Email Classification: This task involves categorizing emails into either spam or non-spam (ham) categories, typically based on their content, aiding in email filtering and prioritization.

News Article Classification: Categorizing news articles based on their content or topics such as politics, entertainment, sports, technology, etc. This categorization assists in better organizing and presenting news content to readers.

Language Identification: This task involves determining the language used in a given text, is useful in multilingual contexts or language-specific applications.

Toxicity Classification: Identifying whether a social media comment or post contains toxic content, hate speech, or is non-toxic. This classification helps in content moderation and creating safer online environments.

Each form of text annotation serves a specific purpose, enabling better organization, classification, and understanding of textual data, and contributing to various applications across industries and domains.

Linguistic Annotation

Linguistic annotation focuses on language-related details in text or speech, including semantics, phonetics, and discourse. It encompasses intonation, stress, pauses, and discourse relations. It helps systems understand linguistic nuances, like coreference resolution linking pronouns to their antecedents, semantic labeling, and annotating stress or tone in speech.

Named Entity Recognition (NER)

NER identifies and labels named entities like people's names, locations, dates, etc., in text. It plays a pivotal role in NLP applications, allowing systems like Google Translate or Siri to understand and process textual data accurately.

Part-of-Speech Tagging

Part-of-speech tagging labels words in a sentence with their grammatical categories (nouns, verbs, adjectives). It assists in parsing sentences and understanding their structure.

Keyphrase Tagging

Keyphrase tagging locates and labels keywords or keyphrases in text, aiding in tasks like summarization or extracting key concepts from large text documents.

Entity Linking

Entity linking maps words in text to entities in a knowledge base, aiding in disambiguating entities' meanings and connecting them to larger datasets for contextual understanding.

3. Text Annotation use cases

(i) healthcare.

Text annotation significantly transforms healthcare operations by leveraging AI and machine learning techniques to enhance patient care, streamline processes, and improve overall efficiency:

Automatic Data Extraction: Text annotation aids in extracting critical information from clinical trial records, facilitating better access and analysis of medical documents. It expedites research efforts and supports comprehensive data-driven insights.

Patient Record Analysis: Annotated data enables thorough analysis of patient records, leading to improved outcomes and more accurate medical condition detection. It aids healthcare professionals in making informed decisions and providing tailored treatments.

Insurance Claims Processing: Within healthcare insurance, text annotation helps recognize medically insured patients, identify loss amounts, and extract policyholder information. This speeds up claims processing, ensuring faster service delivery to policyholders.

Healthcare Text Annotation

(II) Insurance

Text annotation in the insurance industry revolutionizes various facets of operations, making tasks more efficient and accurate:

Risk Evaluation: By annotating and extracting contextual data from contracts and forms, text annotation supports risk evaluation, enabling insurance companies to make more informed decisions while minimizing potential risks.

Claims Processing: Annotated data assists in recognizing entities like involved parties and loss amounts, significantly expediting the claims processing workflow. It aids in detecting dubious claims, contributing to fraud detection efforts.

Fraud Detection: Through text annotation, insurance firms can monitor and analyze documents and forms more effectively, enhancing their capabilities to detect fraudulent claims and irregularities.

Roboflow

(III) Banking

The banking sector utilizes text annotation to revolutionize operations and ensure better accuracy and customer satisfaction:

Fraud Identification: Text annotation techniques aid in identifying potential fraud and money laundering patterns, allowing banks to take proactive measures and ensure security.

Custom Data Extraction: Annotated text facilitates the extraction of critical information from contracts, improving workflows and ensuring compliance. It enables efficient data extraction for various attributes like loan rates and credit scores, supporting compliance monitoring.

banking text annotation

(IV) Government

In government operations, text annotation facilitates various tasks, ensuring better efficiency and compliance:

Regulatory Compliance: Text annotation streamlines financial operations by ensuring regulatory compliance through advanced analytics . It helps maintain compliance standards more effectively.

Document Classification: Through text classification and annotation, different types of legal cases can be categorized, ensuring efficient document management and access to digital documents.

Fraud Detection & Analytics: Text annotation assists in the early detection of fraudulent activities by utilizing linguistic annotation, semantic annotation, tone detection , and entity recognition. It enables analytics on vast amounts of data for insights.

Govt text annotation

(V) Logistics

Text annotation in logistics plays a pivotal role in handling massive volumes of data and improving customer experiences:

Invoice Annotation: Annotated text assists in extracting crucial details such as amounts, order numbers, and names from invoices. It streamlines billing and invoicing processes.

Customer Feedback Analysis: By utilizing sentiment and entity annotation, logistics companies can analyze customer feedback, ensuring better service improvements and customer satisfaction.

logistics text annotation

(VI) Media and News

Text annotation's role in the media industry is indispensable for content categorization and credibility:

Content Categorization: Annotation is crucial for categorizing news content into various segments such as sports, education, government, etc., enabling efficient content management and retrieval.

Entity Recognition: Annotating entities like names, locations, and key phrases in news articles aids in information retrieval and fact-checking. It contributes to credibility and accurate reporting.

Fake News Detection: Utilizing text annotation techniques such as NLP annotation and sentiment analysis enables the identification of fake news by analyzing the credibility and sentiment of the content.

media and news

These comprehensive applications across sectors showcase how text annotation significantly impacts various industries, making operations more efficient, accurate, and streamlined.

4. Text Annotation Guidelines

Annotation guidelines serve as a comprehensive set of instructions and rules for annotators when labeling or annotating text data for machine learning tasks. These guidelines are crucial as they define the objectives of the modeling task and the purpose behind the labels assigned to the data. They are crafted by a team familiar with the data and the intended use of the annotations.

Starting with defining the modeling problem and the desired outcomes, annotation guidelines cover various aspects:

(i) Annotation Techniques: Guidelines may start by choosing appropriate annotation methods tailored to the specific problem being addressed.

(ii) Case Definitions: They define common and potentially ambiguous cases that annotators might encounter in the data, along with instructions on how to handle each scenario.

(iii) Handling Ambiguity: Guidelines include examples from the data and strategies to deal with outliers, ambiguous instances, or unusual cases that might arise during annotation.

Text Annotation Workflow

An annotation workflow typically consists of several stages:

(i) Curating Annotation Guidelines: Define the problem, set the expected outcomes, and create comprehensive guidelines that are easy to follow and revisit.

(ii) Selecting a Labeling Tool: Choose appropriate text annotation tools, considering options like Labellerr or other available tools that suit the task's requirements.

(iii) Defining Annotation Process: Create a reproducible workflow that encompasses organizing data sources, utilizing guidelines, employing annotation tools effectively, documenting step-by-step annotation processes, defining formats for saving and exporting annotations, and reviewing each labeled sample.

(iv) Review and Quality Control: Regularly review labeled data to prevent generic label errors, biases, or inconsistencies. Multiple annotators may label the same samples to ensure consistency and reduce interpretational bias. Statistical measures like Cohen's kappa statistic can assess annotator agreement to identify and address discrepancies or biases in annotations.

Ensuring a streamlined flow of incoming data samples, rigorous review processes, and consistent adherence to annotation guidelines are crucial for generating high-quality labeled datasets for machine learning models. Regular monitoring and quality checks help maintain the reliability and integrity of the annotated data.

5. Text Annotation Tools and Technologies

Text Annotation Tools

Text annotation tools play a vital role in preparing data for AI and machine learning, particularly in natural language processing (NLP) applications. These tools fall into two main categories: open-source and commercial offerings. Open-source tools, available at no cost, are customizable and widely used in startups and academic projects for their affordability. Conversely, commercial tools offer advanced functionalities and support, making them suitable for large-scale and enterprise-level projects.

Commercial Text Annotation Tools

(i) labellerr.

Labellerr is a text annotation tool that provides high-quality and accurate text annotations for training AI models at scale. The tool, Labellerr, offers various features and services tailored to text annotation needs.

Labellerr Text Annotation

Labellerr boasts the following functionalities and services:

Text Annotation Features:

(i) Sentiment Analysis: Identifies sentiments and emotions in text, categorizing statements as positive, negative, or neutral.

(ii) Summarization: Highlights key sentences or phrases within text to create a summarized version.

(iii) Translation: Translates selected text segments into different languages, such as English to French or German to Italian.

(iv) Named-Entity Recognition: Tags named entities (e.g., ID, Name, Place, Price) in text based on predefined categories.

(v) Text Classification: Classifies text by assigning appropriate classes based on their content.

(vi) Question Answering: Matches questions with their respective answers to train models for generating accurate responses.

Automated Workflows:

(i) Customization: Allows users to create custom automated data workflows, collaborate in real-time, perform QA reviews, and gain complete visibility into AI operations.

(ii) Pipeline Management: Enables the creation and automation of text labeling workflows, multiple user roles, review cycles, inter-annotator agreements, and various annotation stages.

Text Labeling Services:

(i) Provides professional text annotators and linguists focused on ensuring quality and accuracy in annotations.

(ii) Offers fully managed services, allowing users to concentrate on other important aspects while delegating text annotation tasks.

Labellerr TA

Labellerr emerges as a comprehensive and versatile commercial text annotation tool that streamlines the process of annotating large text datasets for AI model training purposes. It provides a wide array of annotation capabilities and customizable workflows, catering to diverse text annotation requirements.

(II) SuperAnnotate

SuperAnnotate is an advanced text annotation tool designed to facilitate the creation of high-quality and accurate annotations essential for training top-performing AI models. This tool offers a wide array of features and functionalities aimed at streamlining text annotation processes for various industries and use cases.

SuperAnnotate

Key Features of SuperAnnotate's Text Annotation Tool:

Cloud Integrations: Supports integration with various cloud storage systems, allowing users to easily add items from their cloud repositories to the SuperAnnotate platform.

Versatile Use Cases: Encompasses all use cases, ensuring its applicability across different industries and scenarios.

Advanced Annotation Tools: Equipped with an array of advanced tools tailored for efficient text annotation.

Functionalities Offered by SuperAnnotate:

Sentiment Analysis: Capable of identifying sentiments expressed in text, determining whether statements are positive, negative, or neutral, and even detecting emotions like happiness or anger.

Summarization: Annotations can focus on key sentences or phrases within text, aiding in the creation of summarized versions.

Translation Assistance: Annotations assist in identifying elements for translation, such as sentences, terms, and specific entities.

Named-Entity Recognition: Detects and classifies named entities within text, sorting them into predefined categories like dates, locations, names of individuals, and more.

Text Classification: Assigns classes to texts based on their content and characteristics.

Question Answering: Enables the pairing of questions with corresponding answers to train models for generating accurate responses.

Efficiency-Boosting Features:

Token Annotation: Splits texts into units using linguistic knowledge, ensuring seamless and accurate annotation.

Classify All: Instantly assigns the same class to every occurrence of a word or phrase in a text, enhancing efficiency.

Quality-Focused Elements:

Collaboration System: Involves stakeholders in the quality review process through comments, fostering seamless collaboration and task distribution.

Status Tracking: Provides visibility into the status of items and projects, allowing users to track progress effectively.

Detailed Instructions: Sets a solid foundation for project execution by offering comprehensive project instructions to the team.

(III) V7 Labs

The V7 Text Annotation Tool is a feature within the V7 platform that facilitates the annotation of text data within images and documents. This tool automates the process of detecting and reading text from various types of visual content, including images, photos, documents, and videos.

v7 labs

Key features and steps associated with the V7 Text Annotation Tool include:

Text Scanner Model : V7 has incorporated a public Text Scanner model within its Neural Networks page. This model is designed to automatically detect and read text within images and documents.

Integration into Workflow : Add a model stage to the workflow under the Settings page of your dataset. Select the Text Scanner model from the dropdown list and map the newly created text class. If desired, enable the Auto-Start option to automatically process new images through the model at the beginning of the workflow.

Automatic Text Detection and Reading : Once set up, the V7 Text Annotation Tool will automatically scan and read text from different types of images, including documents, photos, and videos. The tool is extensively pre-trained, enabling it to interpret characters that might be challenging for humans to decipher accurately.

Overall, the V7 Text Annotation Tool streamlines the process of text annotation by leveraging a pre-trained model to automatically detect and read text within visual content, providing an efficient and accurate solution for handling text data in images and documents.

Open Source Text Annotation Tools

(i) piaf platform.

  • Led by Etalab, this tool aims to create a public Q&A dataset in French.
  • Initially designed for question/answer annotation, it allows users to write questions and highlight text segments that answer them.
  • Offers an easy installation process and collaborative annotation capabilities.
  • Export annotations in the format of the Stanford SQuAD dataset.
  • Limited to question/answer annotation but has potential for adaptation to other use cases like sentiment analysis or named entity recognition.

piaf platform

(II) Label Studio

  • Free and open-source tool suitable for various tasks like natural language processing, computer vision, and more.
  • Highly scalable and configurable labeling interface.
  • Provides templates for common tasks (sentiment analysis, named entities, object detection) for easy setup.
  • Allows exporting labeled data in multiple formats, compatible with learning algorithms.
  • Supports collaborative annotation and can be deployed on servers for simultaneous annotation by multiple collaborators.

Label studio

(III) Doccano

doccano

  • Originally designed for text annotation tasks and recently extended to image classification, object detection, and speech-to-text annotations.
  • Offers local installation via pip, supporting SQLite3 or PostgreSQL databases for saving annotations and datasets.
  • Docker image available for deployment on various cloud providers.
  • Simple user interface, collaborative features, and customizable labeling templates.
  • Allows importing datasets in various formats (CSV, JSON, fastText) and exporting annotations accordingly.

Doccano

These open-source tools provide valuable solutions for annotating text data, with each tool having its unique features and suitability for specific annotation tasks. While PIAF is focused on Q&A datasets in French, Label Studio offers extensive customization, and Doccano supports diverse annotation tasks, expanding beyond text to cover image and speech annotations.

Open-source NLP Service Toolkits

  • spaCy : A Python library designed for production-level NLP tasks. While not a standalone annotation tool, it's often used with tools like Prodigy or Doccano for text annotation.
  • NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit) : A popular Python platform that provides numerous text-processing libraries for various language-related tasks. It can be combined with other tools for text annotation purposes.
  • Stanford CoreNLP : A Java-based toolkit capable of performing diverse NLP tasks like part-of-speech tagging, named entity recognition, parsing, and coreference resolution. It's typically used as a backend for annotation tools.
  • GATE (General Architecture for Text Engineering) : An extensive open-source toolkit equipped with components for text processing, information extraction, and semantic annotation.
  • Apache OpenNLP : A machine learning-based toolkit supporting tasks such as tokenization, part-of-speech tagging, entity extraction, and more. It's used alongside other tools for text annotation.
  • UIMA (Unstructured Information Management Architecture) : An open-source framework facilitating the development of applications for analyzing unstructured information like text, audio, and video. It's used in conjunction with other tools for text annotation.

Commercial NLP Service Platforms

  • Amazon Comprehend : A machine learning-powered NLP service offering entity recognition, sentiment analysis, language detection, and other text insights. APIs facilitate easy integration into applications.
  • Google Cloud Natural Language API : Provides sentiment analysis, entity analysis, content classification, and other NLP features. Part of Google Cloud's Machine Learning APIs.
  • Microsoft Azure Text Analytics : Offers sentiment analysis, key phrase extraction, language detection, and named entity recognition among its text processing capabilities.
  • IBM Watson Natural Language Understanding : Utilizes deep learning to extract meaning, sentiment, entities, relations, and more from unstructured text. Available through IBM Cloud with REST APIs and SDKs for integration.
  • MeaningCloud : A text analytics platform supporting sentiment analysis, topic extraction, entity recognition, and classification across multiple languages through APIs and SDKs.
  • Rosette Text Analytics : Provides entity extraction, sentiment analysis, relationship extraction, and language identification functionalities across various languages. Can be integrated into applications using APIs and SDKs.

6. Challenges in Text Annotation

AI and ML companies face numerous hurdles in text annotation processes. These encompass ensuring data quality, efficiently handling large datasets, mitigating annotator biases, safeguarding sensitive information, and scaling operations as data volumes expand. Tackling these issues is crucial to achieving precise model training and robust AI outcomes.

Text Annotation challenges

(i) Ambiguity

This occurs when a word, phrase, or sentence holds multiple meanings, leading to inconsistencies in annotations. Resolving such ambiguities is vital for accurate machine learning model training. For instance, the phrase "I saw the man with the telescope" can be interpreted in different ways, impacting annotation accuracy.

(ii) Subjectivity

Annotating subjective language, containing personal opinions or emotions, poses challenges due to differing interpretations among annotators. Labeling sentiment in customer reviews can vary based on annotators' perceptions, resulting in inconsistencies in annotations.

(iii) Contextual Understanding

Accurate annotation relies on understanding the context in which words or phrases are used. Failing to consider context, such as the dual meaning of "bank" referring to a financial institution or a river side, can lead to incorrect annotations and hinder model performance.

(iv) Language Diversity

The need for proficiency in multiple languages poses challenges in annotating diverse datasets. Finding annotators proficient in less common languages or dialects is difficult, leading to inconsistencies in annotations and proficiency levels among annotators.

(v) Scalability

Annotating large volumes of data is time-consuming and resource-intensive. Handling increasing data volumes demands more annotators, posing challenges in efficiently scaling annotation efforts.

Hiring and training annotators and investing in annotation tools can be expensive. The significant investment required in the data labeling market emphasizes the challenge of balancing accurate annotations with the associated costs for AI and machine learning implementation.

7. The Future of Text Annotation

Text annotation, an integral part of data annotation, is experiencing several future trends that align with the broader advancements in data annotation processes. These trends are likely to shape the landscape of text annotation in the coming years:

Text Annotation Future

(i) Natural Language Processing (NLP) Advancements

With the rapid progress in NLP technologies, text annotation is expected to witness the development of more sophisticated tools that can understand and interpret textual data more accurately. This includes improvements in sentiment analysis, entity recognition, named entity recognition, and other text categorization tasks.

(ii) Contextual Understanding

Future trends in text annotation will likely focus on capturing contextual understanding within language models. This involves annotating text with a deeper understanding of nuances, tone, and context, leading to the creation of more context-aware and accurate language models.

(iii) Multilingual Annotation

As the demand for multilingual AI models grows, text annotation will follow suit. Future trends involve annotating and curating datasets in multiple languages, enabling the training of AI models that can understand and generate content in various languages.

(iv) Fine-grained Annotation for Specific Applications

Industries such as healthcare, legal, finance, and customer service are increasingly utilizing AI-driven solutions. Future trends will involve more fine-grained and specialized text annotation tailored to these specific domains, ensuring accurate and domain-specific language models.

(v) Emphasis on Bias Mitigation

Recognizing and mitigating biases within text data is crucial for fair and ethical AI. Future trends in text annotation will focus on identifying and mitigating biases in textual datasets to ensure AI models are fair and unbiased across various demographics and social contexts.

(vi) Semi-supervised and Active Learning Approaches

To optimize annotation efforts, future trends in text annotation might include the integration of semi-supervised and active learning techniques. These methods intelligently select the most informative samples for annotation, reducing the annotation workload while maintaining model performance.

(vii) Privacy-Centric Annotation Techniques

In alignment with broader data privacy concerns, text annotation will likely adopt techniques that ensure the anonymization and protection of sensitive information within text data, balancing the need for annotation with privacy preservation.

(viii) Enhanced Collaboration and Crowdsourcing Platforms

Similar to other data annotation domains, text annotation will benefit from collaborative and crowdsourced platforms that allow distributed teams to annotate text data efficiently. These platforms will offer improved coordination, quality control mechanisms, and scalability.

(ix) Continual Learning and Adaptation

As language evolves and new linguistic patterns emerge, text annotation will evolve towards continual learning paradigms. This will enable AI models to adapt and learn from ongoing annotations, ensuring they remain relevant and up-to-date.

(x) Explainable AI through Annotation

Text annotation may involve creating datasets that facilitate the development of explainable AI models. Annotations focused on explaining decisions made by AI systems can aid in building transparent and interpretable language models.

These future trends in text annotation are driven by the evolving nature of AI technology, the increasing demands for more accurate and specialized AI models, ethical considerations, and the need for scalable and efficient annotation processes.

The exploration of text annotation highlights its crucial role in AI's language understanding. This journey revealed:

(i) Text annotation is vital for AI to interpret human language nuances across industries like healthcare, finance, and more.

(ii) Challenges in annotation, like dealing with ambiguity and subjectivity, stress the need for ongoing innovation.

(iii) The best practices and guidelines for text annotation and various available text annotation tools.

(iv) The future promises advancements in language processing, bias mitigation, and contextual understanding.

Overall, text annotation is a cornerstone in AI's language comprehension, fostering innovation and laying the groundwork for seamless human-machine communication in the future.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. what is text annotation & why is it important.

Text annotation enriches raw text by labeling entities, sentiments, parts of speech , etc. This labeled data trains AI models for better language understanding. It's crucial for improving accuracy in tasks like sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, and more. Annotation aids in creating domain-specific AI models and standardizing data, facilitating precise human-AI interactions.

2. What are the different types of annotation techniques?

Annotation techniques involve labeling different aspects of text data for training AI models. Types include Entity Annotation (identifying entities), Sentiment Annotation (labeling emotions), Intent Annotation (categorizing purposes), Linguistic Annotation (marking grammar), Relation Extraction, Coreference Resolution, Temporal Annotation , and Speech Recognition Annotation .

These techniques are vital for training models in various natural language processing tasks, aiding accurate comprehension and response generation by AI systems.

3. What is in-text annotation?

In-text annotation involves adding labels directly within the text to highlight attributes like phrases, keywords, or sentences. These labels guide machine learning models. Quality in-text annotations are essential for building accurate models as they provide reliable training data for AI systems to understand and process language more effectively.

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Teaching Student Annotation: Constructing Meaning Through Connections

Teaching Student Annotation: Constructing Meaning Through Connections

  • Resources & Preparation
  • Instructional Plan
  • Related Resources

Students learn about the purposes and techniques of annotation by examining text closely and critically. They study sample annotations and identify the purposes annotation can serve. Students then practice annotation through a careful reading of a story excerpt, using specific guidelines and writing as many annotations as possible. Students then work in pairs to peer review their annotations, practice using footnotes and PowerPoint to present annotations, and reflect on how creating annotations can change a reader's perspective through personal connection with text.

Featured Resources

  • Making Annotations: A User's Guide : Use this resource guide to help students make connections with text through definition, analysis of author purpose, paraphrasing, personal identification, explaining historical context, and more.

From Theory to Practice

In his English Journal article " I'll Have Mine Annotated, Please: Helping Students Make Connections with Text" Matthew D. Brown expresses a basic truth in English Language Arts instruction: "Reading is one thing, but getting something of value from what we read is another" (73). Brown uses the avenue of personal connection to facilitate the valuable outcomes that can result from reading and interacting with text. He begins with student-centered questions such as, "What were they thinking about as they read? What connections were they making? What questions did they have, and could they find answers to those questions?" (73). Brown's questions lead to providing students with instruction and opportunities that align with the NCTE Principles of Adolescent Literacy Reform: A Policy Research Brief by "link[ing] their personal experiences and their texts, making connections between the students' existing literacy resources and the ones necessary for various disciplines" (5). Further Reading

Common Core Standards

This resource has been aligned to the Common Core State Standards for states in which they have been adopted. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, CCSS alignments are forthcoming.

State Standards

This lesson has been aligned to standards in the following states. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, standard alignments are not currently available for that state.

NCTE/IRA National Standards for the English Language Arts

  • 1. Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction, classic and contemporary works.
  • 2. Students read a wide range of literature from many periods in many genres to build an understanding of the many dimensions (e.g., philosophical, ethical, aesthetic) of human experience.
  • 3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics).
  • 4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes.
  • 5. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes.
  • 6. Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss print and nonprint texts.
  • 7. Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience.

Materials and Technology

  • Copies of "Eleven" by Sandra Cisceros or other text appropriate for the activities in this lesson
  • Colored Pencils
  • Sample Annotation PowerPoint on The Pearl
  • Making Annotations: A User's Guide or one students create after discussion
  • Annotation Sheet
  • Student Sample Annotations from "Eleven"
  • Annotation Peer Review Guide
  • Example Student Brainstorming for Annotation
  • Sample Revised and Published Annotations Using Footnotes

Preparation

  • Find sample annotated texts to share with your students. Shakespeare's plays work well since many of his texts are annotated.  Red Reader editions published by Discovery Teacher have great user-friendly annotations geared toward young adult readers.  Look for selections that are engaging—ones that offer more than vocabulary definitions and give a variety of annotations beyond explanation and analysis.
  • Alternatively, search Google Books for any text with annotations.  A search for Romeo and Juliet , for example, will bring up numerous versions that can be viewed directly online.
  • While much of the work will be done by students, it is useful to take some time to think about the role of annotations in a text.  You will have students identify the functions of annotations, but it is always helpful if you have your own list of uses of annotations so that you can help guide students in this area of instruction if necessary.
  • Make copies of all necessary handouts.
  • Arrange for students to have access to Internet-connected computers if they will be doing their annotations in an online interactive.
  • Test the Literary Graffiti and Webbing Tool interactives on your computers to familiarize yourself with the tools and ensure that you have the Flash plug-in installed. You can download the plug-in from the technical support page.

Student Objectives

Students will:

  • examine and analyze text closely, critically, and carefully.
  • make personal, meaningful connections with text.
  • clearly communicate their ideas about a piece of text through writing, revision, and publication.

Session One

  • Begin the session by asking students if they are familar with the word annotation . Point out the words note and notation as clues to the word's meaning. If students know the word, proceed with the next step. If students are unfamiliar, ask them to determine what the word means by seeing what the texts you pass out in the next step have in common.
  • Pass out a variety of sample texts that use annotations. If you are using Google Books , direct students to texts online to have them examine the annotations that are used.
  • Have the students skim the texts and carefully examine the annotations.  Encourage students to begin to see the variety of ways that an editor of a text uses annotations.
  • Working with a small group of their peers, students should create a list that shows what effective annotations might do.
  • give definitions to difficult and unfamiliar words.
  • give background information, especially explaining customs, traditions, and ways of living that may be unfamiliar to the reader.
  • help explain what is going on in the text.
  • make connections to other texts.
  • point out the use of literary techniques and how they add meaning to the text.
  • can use humor (or other styles that might be quite different from the main text).
  • reveal that the writer of these annotations knows his or her reader well.
  • The process of generating this list should move into a discussion about where these annotations came from—who wrote them and why.  Guide students to think about the person who wrote these ideas, who looked at the text and did more than just read it, and who made a connection with the text.  It is important here that students begin to realize that their understanding of what they have read comes from their interaction with what is on the page.  You may wish to jumpstart the conversation by telling students about connections you make with watching films, as students may be more aware of doing so themselves.
  • touch them emotionally, making them feel happiness as well as sadness.
  • remind them of childhood experiences.
  • teach them something new.
  • change their perspective on an issue.
  • help them see how they can better relate to others around them.
  • help them see the world through someone else's experiences.
  • Before beginning the next lesson, create your Annotation Guide reflecting the different functions of annotation the class discussed today (or use the Sample Annotation Guide ).

Session Two

  • Pass out "Eleven" by Sandra Cisneros or any other text appropriate for your students and this activity.
  • Read and discuss the story as needed, but resist spending too much time with the story since the goal of annotation is to get the students to connect with the text in their own ways.
  • Pass out the Sample Annotation Guide or the one the class created and review the various ideas that were generated during the previous session, helping students to begin to think of the various ways that they can begin to connect to the story "Eleven."
  • Pass out the Annotation Sheet and ask the students to choose a particularly memorable section of the story, a section large enough to fill up the lines given to them on the Annotation Sheet .  (NOTE: While you could have the students create annotations in the margins of the entire text, isolating a small portion of the text will make the students' first attempt at annotations less daunting and more manageable. You can also use ReadWriteThink interactives Literary Graffiti or Webbing Tool at this point in the instructional process, replacing or supplementing the Annotation Sheet handout.)
  • Share with students the Student Sample Annotations from "Eleven" and use the opportunity to review the various purposes of annotating and preview directions for the activity.
  • Pass out the colored pencils.  Make sure that students can each use a variety of colors in their annotating.  Sharing pencils among members of a small group works best.
  • Have the students find a word, phrase, or sentence on their Annotation Sheet that is meaningful or significant to them.  Have them lightly color over that word, phrase, or sentence with one of their colored pencils.
  • Students should then draw a line out toward the margin from what they just highlighted on their Annotation Sheet .
  • Now students annotate their selected text.  Using the Sample Annotation Guide , students should write an annotation for the highlighted text.  They can talk about how they feel or discuss what images come to mind or share experiences that they have had.  Any connection with that part of the text should be encouraged at this entry-level stage.
  • Repeat this process several times.  Encourage students to use a variety of annotations from the Sample Annotation Guide .  But, most importantly, encourage them to make as many annotations as possible.
  • What did they get out of writing annotations?
  • What did they learn about the text that they didn't see before?
  • How might this make them better readers?
  • Students should take the time to share these reflections with each other and with the whole class. Collect responses to evaluate levels of engagement and to find any questions or concerns you may need to address.

Session Three

  • Return annotations from the previous session and address any questions or concerns.
  • Explain that, working in pairs, the students will examine each other's annotations and look for ideas that have the potential for further development and revision. 
  • Distribute copies the Annotation Peer Review Guide and explain how it will help them work together to select the best ideas that they have presented in their annotations. Peer review partners should label each annotation, comment on it, and look for several annotations that would benefit from revision and continued thinking.
  • Have each pair narrow down their ideas to the four or five most significant annotations per student.
  • Once this is done, give the students time to start revising and developing their ideas.  Encourage them to elaborate on their ideas by explaining connections more fully, doing basic research to answer questions or find necessary information, or providing whatever other development would be appropriate.
  • Circulate the room to look at what the students have chosen so that you can guide them with their development and writing.  If you see the need to offer more guiding feedback, collecting the annotation revisions during this process may be helpful.

Session Four

  • Once students have revised and developed a few of their annotations on their own, students should begin work toward a final draft.
  • The students exchange their revised annotations.
  • What is one thing that I really liked in this set of annotations?
  • What is one thing that I found confusing, needed more explanation, etc.?
  • If this were my set of annotations, what is one thing that I would change?
  • Encourage students to rely heavily on the Sample Annotation Guide and the Annotation Peer Review Guide to make these comments during the peer review process. They should be looking to see that there are a variety of annotations and that the annotations dig deeper than just surface comments (e.g., definitions) and move toward meaningful personal connections and even literary analysis.
  • Take the original format of the annotation sheet and have the students type up their work using colored text.
  • Teach the students how to footnote, and then have them use this footnoting technique for the final draft of their annotations. See the Sample Student Brainstorming for Annotation and Sample Revised and Published Annotations Using Footnotes on The Great Gatsby . If using Microsoft Word, visit the resource Insert a Footnote or Endnote for information on how to use this feature in Word.
  • Create a PowerPoint in which the first slide is the original text. The phrases are then highlighted in different colors and hyperlinked to other slides in the presentation which contain the annotations. See the Sample Annotation PowerPoint on The Pearl, and visit PowerPoint in the Classroom for tutorials on how to make the best use of PowerPoint functions.
  • What did they learn by doing this activity?
  • How did these annotations change their perspective on the text?
  • In what ways did their thinking change as they worked through the drafting, rewriting, and revising of their annotations?
  • Make sure that students are given time to share these reflections with each other and with the whole class.
  • annotate a whole text, using the margins for annotating
  • use sticky notes in textbooks or novels as a way to annotate larger works
  • use annotations as part of a formal essay to provide personal comments to supplement the analysis they have written.
  • Assessing Cultural Relevance: Exploring Personal Connections to a Text
  • Graffiti Wall: Discussing and Responding to Literature Using Graphics
  • In Literature, Interpretation Is the Thing
  • Literary Scrapbooks Online: An Electronic Reader-Response Project
  • Reader Response in Hypertext: Making Personal Connections to Literature
  • Creative Outlining—From Freewriting to Formalizing

Student Assessment / Reflections

  • Review and comment on student reflections after each step of the annotation drafting and revision process.
  • If you use this lesson as an introduction to the idea of annotation, the focus of the assessment should be on the variety of annotations a student makes.  Even so, teachers should be able to observe if students were able to move beyond surface connections (defining words, summarizing the story, and so forth) to deeper connections with the text (personal feelings, relating evens to past experiences, and so forth).  Use an adaptation of the Annotation Peer Review Guide in this process.
  • For those who take this lesson to its completion by having students generate a final published draft, the focus should move from just looking for a variety of annotations to focusing on the quality of the annotations.  By working through the writing process with these annotations, students should have been able to comment meaningfully beyond what they began with in their “rough draft.”  This should be most evident in the reflections students write in response to the process of creating annotations. Again, a modified version of the Annotation Peer Review Guide would be suitable for this evaluative purpose.
  • Student Interactives
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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, the 31 literary devices you must know.

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Need to analyze The Scarlet Letter or To Kill a Mockingbird for English class, but fumbling for the right vocabulary and concepts for literary devices? You've come to the right place. To successfully interpret and analyze literary texts, you'll first need to have a solid foundation in literary terms and their definitions.

In this article, we'll help you get familiar with most commonly used literary devices in prose and poetry. We'll give you a clear definition of each of the terms we discuss along with examples of literary elements and the context in which they most often appear (comedic writing, drama, or other).

Before we get to the list of literary devices, however, we have a quick refresher on what literary devices are and how understanding them will help you analyze works of literature.

What Are Literary Devices and Why Should You Know Them?

Literary devices are techniques that writers use to create a special and pointed effect in their writing, to convey information, or to help readers understand their writing on a deeper level.

Often, literary devices are used in writing for emphasis or clarity. Authors will also use literary devices to get readers to connect more strongly with either a story as a whole or specific characters or themes.

So why is it important to know different literary devices and terms? Aside from helping you get good grades on your literary analysis homework, there are several benefits to knowing the techniques authors commonly use.

Being able to identify when different literary techniques are being used helps you understand the motivation behind the author's choices. For example, being able to identify symbols in a story can help you figure out why the author might have chosen to insert these focal points and what these might suggest in regard to her attitude toward certain characters, plot points, and events.

In addition, being able to identify literary devices can make a written work's overall meaning or purpose clearer to you. For instance, let's say you're planning to read (or re-read) The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis. By knowing that this particular book is a religious allegory with references to Christ (represented by the character Aslan) and Judas (represented by Edmund), it will be clearer to you why Lewis uses certain language to describe certain characters and why certain events happen the way they do.

Finally, literary techniques are important to know because they make texts more interesting and more fun to read. If you were to read a novel without knowing any literary devices, chances are you wouldn't be able to detect many of the layers of meaning interwoven into the story via different techniques.

Now that we've gone over why you should spend some time learning literary devices, let's take a look at some of the most important literary elements to know.

List of Literary Devices: 31 Literary Terms You Should Know

Below is a list of literary devices, most of which you'll often come across in both prose and poetry. We explain what each literary term is and give you an example of how it's used. This literary elements list is arranged in alphabetical order.

An allegory is a story that is used to represent a more general message about real-life (historical) issues and/or events. It is typically an entire book, novel, play, etc.

Example: George Orwell's dystopian book Animal Farm is an allegory for the events preceding the Russian Revolution and the Stalinist era in early 20th century Russia. In the story, animals on a farm practice animalism, which is essentially communism. Many characters correspond to actual historical figures: Old Major represents both the founder of communism Karl Marx and the Russian communist leader Vladimir Lenin; the farmer, Mr. Jones, is the Russian Czar; the boar Napoleon stands for Joseph Stalin; and the pig Snowball represents Leon Trotsky.

Alliteration

Alliteration is a series of words or phrases that all (or almost all) start with the same sound. These sounds are typically consonants to give more stress to that syllable. You'll often come across alliteration in poetry, titles of books and poems ( Jane Austen is a fan of this device, for example—just look at Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility ), and tongue twisters.

Example: "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers." In this tongue twister, the "p" sound is repeated at the beginning of all major words.

Allusion is when an author makes an indirect reference to a figure, place, event, or idea originating from outside the text. Many allusions make reference to previous works of literature or art.

Example: "Stop acting so smart—it's not like you're Einstein or something." This is an allusion to the famous real-life theoretical physicist Albert Einstein.

Anachronism

An anachronism occurs when there is an (intentional) error in the chronology or timeline of a text. This could be a character who appears in a different time period than when he actually lived, or a technology that appears before it was invented. Anachronisms are often used for comedic effect.

Example: A Renaissance king who says, "That's dope, dude!" would be an anachronism, since this type of language is very modern and not actually from the Renaissance period.

Anaphora is when a word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of multiple sentences throughout a piece of writing. It's used to emphasize the repeated phrase and evoke strong feelings in the audience.

Example: A famous example of anaphora is Winston Churchill's "We Shall Fight on the Beaches" speech. Throughout this speech, he repeats the phrase "we shall fight" while listing numerous places where the British army will continue battling during WWII. He did this to rally both troops and the British people and to give them confidence that they would still win the war.

Anthropomorphism

An anthropomorphism occurs when something nonhuman, such as an animal, place, or inanimate object, behaves in a human-like way.

Example: Children's cartoons have many examples of anthropomorphism. For example, Mickey and Minnie Mouse can speak, wear clothes, sing, dance, drive cars, etc. Real mice can't do any of these things, but the two mouse characters behave much more like humans than mice.

Asyndeton is when the writer leaves out conjunctions (such as "and," "or," "but," and "for") in a group of words or phrases so that the meaning of the phrase or sentence is emphasized. It is often used for speeches since sentences containing asyndeton can have a powerful, memorable rhythm.

Example: Abraham Lincoln ends the Gettysburg Address with the phrase "...and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the Earth." By leaving out certain conjunctions, he ends the speech on a more powerful, melodic note.

Colloquialism

Colloquialism is the use of informal language and slang. It's often used by authors to lend a sense of realism to their characters and dialogue. Forms of colloquialism include words, phrases, and contractions that aren't real words (such as "gonna" and "ain't").

Example: "Hey, what's up, man?" This piece of dialogue is an example of a colloquialism, since it uses common everyday words and phrases, namely "what's up" and "man."

An epigraph is when an author inserts a famous quotation, poem, song, or other short passage or text at the beginning of a larger text (e.g., a book, chapter, etc.). An epigraph is typically written by a different writer (with credit given) and used as a way to introduce overarching themes or messages in the work. Some pieces of literature, such as Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick , incorporate multiple epigraphs throughout.

Example: At the beginning of Ernest Hemingway's book The Sun Also Rises is an epigraph that consists of a quotation from poet Gertrude Stein, which reads, "You are all a lost generation," and a passage from the Bible.

Epistrophe is similar to anaphora, but in this case, the repeated word or phrase appears at the end of successive statements. Like anaphora, it is used to evoke an emotional response from the audience.

Example: In Lyndon B. Johnson's speech, "The American Promise," he repeats the word "problem" in a use of epistrophe: "There is no Negro problem. There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern problem. There is only an American problem."

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A euphemism is when a more mild or indirect word or expression is used in place of another word or phrase that is considered harsh, blunt, vulgar, or unpleasant.

Example: "I'm so sorry, but he didn't make it." The phrase "didn't make it" is a more polite and less blunt way of saying that someone has died.

A flashback is an interruption in a narrative that depicts events that have already occurred, either before the present time or before the time at which the narration takes place. This device is often used to give the reader more background information and details about specific characters, events, plot points, and so on.

Example: Most of the novel Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë is a flashback from the point of view of the housekeeper, Nelly Dean, as she engages in a conversation with a visitor named Lockwood. In this story, Nelly narrates Catherine Earnshaw's and Heathcliff's childhoods, the pair's budding romance, and their tragic demise.

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is when an author indirectly hints at—through things such as dialogue, description, or characters' actions—what's to come later on in the story. This device is often used to introduce tension to a narrative.

Example: Say you're reading a fictionalized account of Amelia Earhart. Before she embarks on her (what we know to be unfortunate) plane ride, a friend says to her, "Be safe. Wouldn't want you getting lost—or worse." This line would be an example of foreshadowing because it implies that something bad ("or worse") will happen to Earhart.

Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement that's not meant to be taken literally by the reader. It is often used for comedic effect and/or emphasis.

Example: "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse." The speaker will not literally eat an entire horse (and most likely couldn't ), but this hyperbole emphasizes how starved the speaker feels.

Imagery is when an author describes a scene, thing, or idea so that it appeals to our senses (taste, smell, sight, touch, or hearing). This device is often used to help the reader clearly visualize parts of the story by creating a strong mental picture.

Example: Here's an example of imagery taken from William Wordsworth's famous poem "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud":

When all at once I saw a crowd, A host of golden Daffodils; Beside the Lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Irony is when a statement is used to express an opposite meaning than the one literally expressed by it. There are three types of irony in literature:

  • Verbal irony: When someone says something but means the opposite (similar to sarcasm).
  • Situational irony: When something happens that's the opposite of what was expected or intended to happen.
  • Dramatic irony: When the audience is aware of the true intentions or outcomes, while the characters are not . As a result, certain actions and/or events take on different meanings for the audience than they do for the characters involved.
  • Verbal irony: One example of this type of irony can be found in Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado." In this short story, a man named Montresor plans to get revenge on another man named Fortunato. As they toast, Montresor says, "And I, Fortunato—I drink to your long life." This statement is ironic because we the readers already know by this point that Montresor plans to kill Fortunato.
  • Situational irony: A girl wakes up late for school and quickly rushes to get there. As soon as she arrives, though, she realizes that it's Saturday and there is no school.
  • Dramatic irony: In William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet , Romeo commits suicide in order to be with Juliet; however, the audience (unlike poor Romeo) knows that Juliet is not actually dead—just asleep.

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Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is the comparing and contrasting of two or more different (usually opposite) ideas, characters, objects, etc. This literary device is often used to help create a clearer picture of the characteristics of one object or idea by comparing it with those of another.

Example: One of the most famous literary examples of juxtaposition is the opening passage from Charles Dickens' novel A Tale of Two Cities :

"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair …"

Malapropism

Malapropism happens when an incorrect word is used in place of a word that has a similar sound. This misuse of the word typically results in a statement that is both nonsensical and humorous; as a result, this device is commonly used in comedic writing.

Example: "I just can't wait to dance the flamingo!" Here, a character has accidentally called the flamenco (a type of dance) the flamingo (an animal).

Metaphor/Simile

Metaphors are when ideas, actions, or objects are described in non-literal terms. In short, it's when an author compares one thing to another. The two things being described usually share something in common but are unalike in all other respects.

A simile is a type of metaphor in which an object, idea, character, action, etc., is compared to another thing using the words "as" or "like."

Both metaphors and similes are often used in writing for clarity or emphasis.

"What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun." In this line from Romeo and Juliet , Romeo compares Juliet to the sun. However, because Romeo doesn't use the words "as" or "like," it is not a simile—just a metaphor.

"She is as vicious as a lion." Since this statement uses the word "as" to make a comparison between "she" and "a lion," it is a simile.

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A metonym is when a related word or phrase is substituted for the actual thing to which it's referring. This device is usually used for poetic or rhetorical effect .

Example: "The pen is mightier than the sword." This statement, which was coined by Edward Bulwer-Lytton in 1839, contains two examples of metonymy: "the pen" refers to "the written word," and "the sword" refers to "military force/violence."

Mood is the general feeling the writer wants the audience to have. The writer can achieve this through description, setting, dialogue, and word choice .

Example: Here's a passage from J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit: "It had a perfectly round door like a porthole, painted green, with a shiny yellow brass knob in the exact middle. The door opened on to a tube-shaped hall like a tunnel: a very comfortable tunnel without smoke, with panelled walls, and floors tiled and carpeted, provided with polished chairs, and lots and lots of pegs for hats and coats -- the hobbit was fond of visitors." In this passage, Tolkien uses detailed description to set create a cozy, comforting mood. From the writing, you can see that the hobbit's home is well-cared for and designed to provide comfort.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a word (or group of words) that represents a sound and actually resembles or imitates the sound it stands for. It is often used for dramatic, realistic, or poetic effect.

Examples: Buzz, boom, chirp, creak, sizzle, zoom, etc.

An oxymoron is a combination of two words that, together, express a contradictory meaning. This device is often used for emphasis, for humor, to create tension, or to illustrate a paradox (see next entry for more information on paradoxes).

Examples: Deafening silence, organized chaos, cruelly kind, insanely logical, etc.

body_impossible_staircase

A paradox is a statement that appears illogical or self-contradictory but, upon investigation, might actually be true or plausible.

Note that a paradox is different from an oxymoron: a paradox is an entire phrase or sentence, whereas an oxymoron is a combination of just two words.

Example: Here's a famous paradoxical sentence: "This statement is false." If the statement is true, then it isn't actually false (as it suggests). But if it's false, then the statement is true! Thus, this statement is a paradox because it is both true and false at the same time.

Personification

Personification is when a nonhuman figure or other abstract concept or element is described as having human-like qualities or characteristics. (Unlike anthropomorphism where non-human figures become human-like characters, with personification, the object/figure is simply described as being human-like.) Personification is used to help the reader create a clearer mental picture of the scene or object being described.

Example: "The wind moaned, beckoning me to come outside." In this example, the wind—a nonhuman element—is being described as if it is human (it "moans" and "beckons").

Repetition is when a word or phrase is written multiple times, usually for the purpose of emphasis. It is often used in poetry (for purposes of rhythm as well).

Example: When Lin-Manuel Miranda, who wrote the score for the hit musical Hamilton, gave his speech at the 2016 Tony's, he recited a poem he'd written that included the following line:

And love is love is love is love is love is love is love is love cannot be killed or swept aside.

Satire is genre of writing that criticizes something , such as a person, behavior, belief, government, or society. Satire often employs irony, humor, and hyperbole to make its point.

Example: The Onion is a satirical newspaper and digital media company. It uses satire to parody common news features such as opinion columns, editorial cartoons, and click bait headlines.

A type of monologue that's often used in dramas, a soliloquy is when a character speaks aloud to himself (and to the audience), thereby revealing his inner thoughts and feelings.

Example: In Romeo and Juliet , Juliet's speech on the balcony that begins with, "O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?" is a soliloquy, as she is speaking aloud to herself (remember that she doesn't realize Romeo's there listening!).

Symbolism refers to the use of an object, figure, event, situation, or other idea in a written work to represent something else— typically a broader message or deeper meaning that differs from its literal meaning.

The things used for symbolism are called "symbols," and they'll often appear multiple times throughout a text, sometimes changing in meaning as the plot progresses.

Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel The Great Gatsby , the green light that sits across from Gatsby's mansion symbolizes Gatsby's hopes and dreams .

A synecdoche is a literary device in which part of something is used to represent the whole, or vice versa. It's similar to a metonym (see above); however, a metonym doesn't have to represent the whole—just something associated with the word used.

Example: "Help me out, I need some hands!" In this case, "hands" is being used to refer to people (the whole human, essentially).

While mood is what the audience is supposed to feel, tone is the writer or narrator's attitude towards a subject . A good writer will always want the audience to feel the mood they're trying to evoke, but the audience may not always agree with the narrator's tone, especially if the narrator is an unsympathetic character or has viewpoints that differ from those of the reader.

Example: In an essay disdaining Americans and some of the sites they visit as tourists, Rudyard Kipling begins with the line, "Today I am in the Yellowstone Park, and I wish I were dead." If you enjoy Yellowstone and/or national parks, you may not agree with the author's tone in this piece.

body_magnifying_glass_book

How to Identify and Analyze Literary Devices: 4 Tips

In order to fully interpret pieces of literature, you have to understand a lot about literary devices in the texts you read. Here are our top tips for identifying and analyzing different literary techniques:

Tip 1: Read Closely and Carefully

First off, you'll need to make sure that you're reading very carefully. Resist the temptation to skim or skip any sections of the text. If you do this, you might miss some literary devices being used and, as a result, will be unable to accurately interpret the text.

If there are any passages in the work that make you feel especially emotional, curious, intrigued, or just plain interested, check that area again for any literary devices at play.

It's also a good idea to reread any parts you thought were confusing or that you didn't totally understand on a first read-through. Doing this ensures that you have a solid grasp of the passage (and text as a whole) and will be able to analyze it appropriately.

Tip 2: Memorize Common Literary Terms

You won't be able to identify literary elements in texts if you don't know what they are or how they're used, so spend some time memorizing the literary elements list above. Knowing these (and how they look in writing) will allow you to more easily pinpoint these techniques in various types of written works.

Tip 3: Know the Author's Intended Audience

Knowing what kind of audience an author intended her work to have can help you figure out what types of literary devices might be at play.

For example, if you were trying to analyze a children's book, you'd want to be on the lookout for child-appropriate devices, such as repetition and alliteration.

Tip 4: Take Notes and Bookmark Key Passages and Pages

This is one of the most important tips to know, especially if you're reading and analyzing works for English class. As you read, take notes on the work in a notebook or on a computer. Write down any passages, paragraphs, conversations, descriptions, etc., that jump out at you or that contain a literary device you were able to identify.

You can also take notes directly in the book, if possible (but don't do this if you're borrowing a book from the library!). I recommend circling keywords and important phrases, as well as starring interesting or particularly effective passages and paragraphs.

Lastly, use sticky notes or post-its to bookmark pages that are interesting to you or that have some kind of notable literary device. This will help you go back to them later should you need to revisit some of what you've found for a paper you plan to write.

What's Next?

Looking for more in-depth explorations and examples of literary devices? Join us as we delve into imagery , personification , rhetorical devices , tone words and mood , and different points of view in literature, as well as some more poetry-specific terms like assonance and iambic pentameter .

Reading The Great Gatsby for class or even just for fun? Then you'll definitely want to check out our expert guides on the biggest themes in this classic book, from love and relationships to money and materialism .

Got questions about Arthur Miller's The Crucible ? Read our in-depth articles to learn about the most important themes in this play and get a complete rundown of all the characters .

For more information on your favorite works of literature, take a look at our collection of high-quality book guides and our guide to the 9 literary elements that appear in every story !

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Hannah received her MA in Japanese Studies from the University of Michigan and holds a bachelor's degree from the University of Southern California. From 2013 to 2015, she taught English in Japan via the JET Program. She is passionate about education, writing, and travel.

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Title: weak-mamba-unet: visual mamba makes cnn and vit work better for scribble-based medical image segmentation.

Abstract: Medical image segmentation is increasingly reliant on deep learning techniques, yet the promising performance often come with high annotation costs. This paper introduces Weak-Mamba-UNet, an innovative weakly-supervised learning (WSL) framework that leverages the capabilities of Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Vision Transformer (ViT), and the cutting-edge Visual Mamba (VMamba) architecture for medical image segmentation, especially when dealing with scribble-based annotations. The proposed WSL strategy incorporates three distinct architecture but same symmetrical encoder-decoder networks: a CNN-based UNet for detailed local feature extraction, a Swin Transformer-based SwinUNet for comprehensive global context understanding, and a VMamba-based Mamba-UNet for efficient long-range dependency modeling. The key concept of this framework is a collaborative and cross-supervisory mechanism that employs pseudo labels to facilitate iterative learning and refinement across the networks. The effectiveness of Weak-Mamba-UNet is validated on a publicly available MRI cardiac segmentation dataset with processed scribble annotations, where it surpasses the performance of a similar WSL framework utilizing only UNet or SwinUNet. This highlights its potential in scenarios with sparse or imprecise annotations. The source code is made publicly accessible.

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The Civil Fraud Ruling on Donald Trump, Annotated

By Kate Christobek

Former President Donald J. Trump was penalized $355 million , plus millions more in interest, and banned for three years from serving in any top roles at a New York company, including his own, in a ruling on Friday by Justice Arthur F. Engoron. The decision comes after the state's attorney general, Letitia James, sued Mr. Trump, members of his family and his company in 2022.

The ruling expands on Justice Engoron’s decision last fall , which found that Mr. Trump’s financial statements were filled with fraudulent claims. Mr. Trump will appeal the financial penalty and is likely to appeal other restrictions; he has already appealed last fall’s ruling.

The New York Times annotated the document.

Download the original PDF .

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New York Times Analysis

This ruling by Justice Arthur F. Engoron is a result of a 2022 lawsuit filed by New York’s attorney general, Letitia James , against Donald J. Trump and the Trump Organization; his adult sons, Donald Trump Jr. and Eric Trump; the company’s former chief financial officer Allen Weisselberg and former controller Jeffrey McConney; and several of their related entities. Mr. Trump’s daughter, Ivanka Trump, was also initially a defendant until an appeals court dismissed the case against her.

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The law under which Ms. James sued, known by its shorthand 63(12), requires the plaintiff to show a defendant’s conduct was deceptive . If that standard is met, a judge can impose severe punishment, including forfeiting the money obtained through fraud. Ms. James has also used this law against the oil company ExxonMobil, the tobacco brand Juul and the pharma executive Martin Shkreli.

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Justice Engoron is now providing a background of this case. This ruling comes after a three-year investigation by the attorney general’s office and the conclusion of a trial that ended last month. But this likely won’t be Mr. Trump’s last word on the matter — he will appeal the financial penalty and is likely to appeal other restrictions, as he has already appealed other rulings.

In late 2022, Justice Engoron assigned a former federal judge, Barbara Jones, to serve as a monitor at the Trump Organization and tasked her with keeping an eye on the company and its lending relationships. Last month, she issued a report citing inconsistencies in its financial reporting, which “may reflect a lack of adequate internal controls.”

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Here, Justice Engoron is laying out the laws he considered in his ruling beyond 63(12). The attorney general’s lawsuit included allegations of violations of falsifying business records, issuing false financial statements, insurance fraud and related conspiracy offenses.

Justice Engoron is explaining the decision, issued a week before the trial, in which he found that Mr. Trump’s financial statements were filled with fraud , fundamentally shaping the rest of the trial.

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For over 50 pages, Justice Engoron describes his conclusions about the testimony of all of the witnesses who spoke during the trial.

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Justice Engoron discusses Mr. McConney’s important role in preparing Mr. Trump’s financial statements. The judge points out that Mr. McConney prepared all the valuations on the statements in consultation with Mr. Weisselberg.

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In his discussion of Mr. Weisselberg, Justice Engoron calls his testimony in the trial “intentionally evasive.” Justice Engoron then brings up Mr. Weisselberg’s separation agreement from the Trump Organization, which prohibited him from voluntarily cooperating with any entities “adverse” to the organization. Justice Engoron says that this renders Mr. Weisselberg’s testimony highly unreliable.

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When Donald Trump Jr. testified in court, he disavowed responsibility for his father’s financial statements despite serving as a trustee of the Donald J. Trump Revocable Trust while his father was president. But Justice Engoron specifically cites here that Donald Trump Jr. certified that he was responsible for the financial statements, and testified that he intended for the banks to rely on them and that the statements were “materially accurate.”

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During his testimony, Eric Trump, the Trump Organization’s de facto chief executive, initially denied knowing about his father’s financial statements until this case. As Justice Engoron points out here, Eric Trump eventually conceded to knowing about them as early as 2013. As a result, Justice Engoron calls Eric Trump’s credibility “severely damaged.”

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Justice Engoron points to Mr. Trump’s testimony when he took the witness stand in November when Mr. Trump acknowledged that he helped put together his annual financial statements. Mr. Trump said he would see them and occasionally have suggestions.

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After four pages of describing Mr. Trump’s testimony, Justice Engoron says Mr. Trump rarely responded to the questions asked and frequently interjected long, irrelevant speeches, which all “severely compromised his credibility.”

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For several pages, Justice Engoron provides background on specific assets that Mr. Trump included in his annual financial statements.

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The judge is clarifying that Ms. James had to prove her claims by a “preponderance of the evidence,” meaning she had to demonstrate it was more likely than not that Mr. Trump and the co-defendants should be held liable. This is a lower standard than that of a criminal trial, which requires that evidence be proven “beyond a reasonable doubt.”

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During the trial, Mr. Trump and his legal team tried to shift the blame for any inaccuracies in his financial statements onto his outside accountants. But Justice Engoron criticizes that argument here.

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During the monthslong trial, Mr. Trump, his legal team and several witnesses stressed that real estate appraisals are an art, not a science. But here it’s clear Justice Engoron, while agreeing with that sentiment, also believes it’s deceptive when different appraisals rely on different assumptions.

Page 78 of undefined PDF document.

Justice Engoron is now going through the defendants one by one and articulating the evidence that shows each of their “intent to defraud,” which is required by the statute against falsifying business records. Notably, his first paragraph describing the former president’s intent provides examples including Mr. Trump’s awareness that his triplex apartment was not 30,000 square feet and his valuation of Mar-a-Lago as a single-family residence even though it was deeded as a social club.

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Among the defendants, Justice Engoron finds only Allen Weisselberg and Jeffrey McConney liable for insurance fraud. Here, he doesn’t provide an explanation for why the other defendants, including Mr. Trump and his adult sons, were not found liable, and he says that both Mr. Weisselberg and Mr. McConney made false representations to insurance companies about Mr. Trump’s financial statements.

While Mr. Trump and his adult sons were not found liable for insurance fraud, here Justice Engoron finds them liable for conspiracy to commit insurance fraud, explaining that they all “aided and abetted” the conspiracy to commit insurance fraud by falsifying business records.

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Justice Engoron here adopts the approximations of Michiel McCarty, the attorney general’s expert witness. Justice Engoron says Mr. McCarty testified “reliably and convincingly,” and finds that the defendants’ fraud saved them over $168 million in interest.

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In finding that the defendants were able to purchase the Old Post Office in Washington, D.C., through their use of the fraudulent financial statements, Justice Engoron rules that the defendants’ proceeds from the sale of the post office in 2022 should be considered “ill-gotten gains.” He penalizes Donald Trump and his companies over $126 million, and Donald Trump Jr. and Eric Trump $4 million each, for this one property.

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Justice Engoron blasts the defendants for failing to admit that they were wrong in their valuations — adding that “their complete lack of contrition and remorse borders on pathological.” He says that this inability to admit error makes him believe they will continue their fraudulent activities unless “judicially restrained.”

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The judge cites other examples of Mr. Trump’s “ongoing propensity to engage in fraud,” bringing up lawsuits against Trump University and the Donald J. Trump Foundation. He also notably raises two criminal cases brought by the Manhattan district attorney’s office: one against Mr. Weisselberg, who pleaded guilty to tax fraud and falsifying business records , and another against the Trump Organization, which was convicted of 17 criminal counts including tax fraud .

Justice Engoron states that Judge Barbara Jones, who has been serving as an independent monitor at the Trump Organization since 2022, will continue in that role for at least three years. He clarifies that going forward, her role will be enhanced and she will review Trump Organization financial disclosures before they are submitted to any third party, to ensure that there are no material misstatements.

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In addition to extending the monitor’s tenure and strengthening her powers, Justice Engoron also took the unusual step of ordering that an independent compliance director be installed inside The Trump organization, and that they report directly to the monitor.

— William K. Rashbaum

In his pre-trial order, Justice Engoron ordered the cancellation of some of Mr. Trump’s business licenses . But here, he pulls back on that decision and instead says that any “restructuring and potential dissolution” would be up to Ms. Jones, the independent monitor.

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Justice Engoron lays out his bans against the defendants, ruling that Mr. Trump, Mr. Weisselberg and Mr. McConney cannot serve as officers or directors of any corporation or legal entity in New York for the next three years, and bans his sons Donald Trump Jr. and Eric Trump for two years from the same. He also prohibits Mr. Trump from applying for any loans from any New York banks for the next three years. The ruling goes further in the cases of Mr. Weisselberg and Mr. McConney, permanently barring them from serving in the financial control function of any New York business.

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Justice Engoron also ordered that Mr. Trump and his sons pay the interest, pushing the penalty to $450 million, according to Ms. James.

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An earlier version of this article misstated how long the adult sons of former President Donald J. Trump — Donald Trump Jr. and Eric Trump — were barred by Justice Arthur F. Engoron from serving as officers or directors of any corporation or legal entity in New York. It was two years, not three. The article also misstated the number of pages in which Justice Engoron describes his conclusions about the testimony of all of the non-defendant witnesses. It was under 50 pages, not over 50 pages. The article also misstated the number of pages in the section in which Justice Engoron provides background on specific assets that Mr. Trump included in his annual financial statements. It was several pages, not more than a dozen pages.

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  1. How to Annotate Texts

    How do you prepare? The resources linked in this section list strategies and techniques you can use to start annotating. What is Annotating? (Charleston County School District) This resource gives an overview of annotation styles, including useful shorthands and symbols.

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    Identify key concepts Monitor your learning as you read Make exam prep effective and streamlined Can be more efficient than creating a separate set of reading notes How do you annotate? Summarize key points in your own words. Use headers and words in bold to guide you Look for main ideas, arguments, and points of evidence

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    Write your notes in the margins (best method), on sticky-notes (decent method), or in a separate notebook (least favorable method). Paraphrase (summarize) each chapter after you finish reading it. You only need a few sentences to do this. Write it down at the beginning or end of the chapter.

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    Learn how to annotate language, structure, quotations and literary techniques in texts with this BBC Bitesize GCSE English Language (AQA) study guide.

  8. Annotating texts

    Learn how to annotate language, structure, quotations and literary techniques in texts with this BBC Bitesize GCSE English Language (Eduqas) study guide.

  9. How to Annotate

    Connect ideas with arrows. 4. Ask questions. 5. Add personal notes. 6. Define technical words. Like many skills, annotating takes practice. Remember that the main goal for doing this is to give you a strategy for reading text that may be more complicated and technical than what you are used to.

  10. Annotating a Text

    Highlighting or underlining key words and phrases or major ideas is the most common form of annotating texts. Many people use this method to make it easier to review material, especially for exams. Highlighting is also a good way of picking out specific language within a text that you may want to cite or quote in a piece of writing.

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  12. 5 Ways to Annotate

    Method 1 Highlighting Important Information Download Article 1 Read the assignment carefully to identify priorities. If you annotate everything you read, your annotations won't really help you find what you need when the time comes. Before you start reading, decide what you are looking for.

  13. 7 Strategies for Teaching Students How to Annotate

    1. Teach the Basics of Good Annotation Help your students understand that annotation is simply the process of thoughtful reading and making notes as they study a text. Start with some basic forms of annotation: highlighting a phrase or sentence and including a comment circling a word that needs defining

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    For the annotation of media assignments in this class, you will cite and comment on a minimum of THREE (3) statements, facts, examples, research or any combination of those from the notes you take about selected media. Here is an example format for an assignment to annotate media: Passage #. Describe Passage. My Comments / Ideas.

  15. Annotating and Taking Notes

    Reading 6 Annotating and Taking Notes As children, most of us were told never to write in books, but now that you're an adult student, your instructor will tell you just the opposite. Writing in your texts as you read—annotating them—is a powerful strategy for engaging with a text and entering a discussion with it.

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    List of Literary Devices: 31 Literary Terms You Should Know Below is a list of literary devices, most of which you'll often come across in both prose and poetry. We explain what each literary term is and give you an example of how it's used. This literary elements list is arranged in alphabetical order. Allegory

  19. Close Reading, Annotating, Text Evidence

    Step 1: Have students read a text or passage quietly and then write a response about it or answer some questions over it. Step 2: Give students a very similar passage and have them read it quietly while annotating it. Then let them share their notes with each other and talk in partners or small groups about what they read and marked.

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