example of article review format

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Education and Communications
Critical Reviews

How to Write an Article Review

Last Updated: September 8, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Jake Adams . Jake Adams is an academic tutor and the owner of Simplifi EDU, a Santa Monica, California based online tutoring business offering learning resources and online tutors for academic subjects K-College, SAT & ACT prep, and college admissions applications. With over 14 years of professional tutoring experience, Jake is dedicated to providing his clients the very best online tutoring experience and access to a network of excellent undergraduate and graduate-level tutors from top colleges all over the nation. Jake holds a BS in International Business and Marketing from Pepperdine University. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 3,086,875 times.

An article review is both a summary and an evaluation of another writer's article. Teachers often assign article reviews to introduce students to the work of experts in the field. Experts also are often asked to review the work of other professionals. Understanding the main points and arguments of the article is essential for an accurate summation. Logical evaluation of the article's main theme, supporting arguments, and implications for further research is an important element of a review . Here are a few guidelines for writing an article review.

Education specialist Alexander Peterman recommends: "In the case of a review, your objective should be to reflect on the effectiveness of what has already been written, rather than writing to inform your audience about a subject."

Things You Should Know

Read the article very closely, and then take time to reflect on your evaluation. Consider whether the article effectively achieves what it set out to.
Write out a full article review by completing your intro, summary, evaluation, and conclusion. Don't forget to add a title, too!
Proofread your review for mistakes (like grammar and usage), while also cutting down on needless information. [1] X Research source

Preparing to Write Your Review

Step 1 Understand what an article review is.

Article reviews present more than just an opinion. You will engage with the text to create a response to the scholarly writer's ideas. You will respond to and use ideas, theories, and research from your studies. Your critique of the article will be based on proof and your own thoughtful reasoning.
An article review only responds to the author's research. It typically does not provide any new research. However, if you are correcting misleading or otherwise incorrect points, some new data may be presented.
An article review both summarizes and evaluates the article.

Step 2 Think about the organization of the review article.

Summarize the article. Focus on the important points, claims, and information.
Discuss the positive aspects of the article. Think about what the author does well, good points she makes, and insightful observations.
Identify contradictions, gaps, and inconsistencies in the text. Determine if there is enough data or research included to support the author's claims. Find any unanswered questions left in the article.

Make note of words or issues you don't understand and questions you have.
Look up terms or concepts you are unfamiliar with, so you can fully understand the article. Read about concepts in-depth to make sure you understand their full context.

Pay careful attention to the meaning of the article. Make sure you fully understand the article. The only way to write a good article review is to understand the article.

With either method, make an outline of the main points made in the article and the supporting research or arguments. It is strictly a restatement of the main points of the article and does not include your opinions.
After putting the article in your own words, decide which parts of the article you want to discuss in your review. You can focus on the theoretical approach, the content, the presentation or interpretation of evidence, or the style. You will always discuss the main issues of the article, but you can sometimes also focus on certain aspects. This comes in handy if you want to focus the review towards the content of a course.
Review the summary outline to eliminate unnecessary items. Erase or cross out the less important arguments or supplemental information. Your revised summary can serve as the basis for the summary you provide at the beginning of your review.

Step 6 Write an outline of your evaluation.

What does the article set out to do?
What is the theoretical framework or assumptions?
Are the central concepts clearly defined?
How adequate is the evidence?
How does the article fit into the literature and field?
Does it advance the knowledge of the subject?
How clear is the author's writing? Don't: include superficial opinions or your personal reaction. Do: pay attention to your biases, so you can overcome them.

Writing the Article Review

For example, in MLA , a citation may look like: Duvall, John N. "The (Super)Marketplace of Images: Television as Unmediated Mediation in DeLillo's White Noise ." Arizona Quarterly 50.3 (1994): 127-53. Print. [10] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source

For example: The article, "Condom use will increase the spread of AIDS," was written by Anthony Zimmerman, a Catholic priest.

Your introduction should only be 10-25% of your review.
End the introduction with your thesis. Your thesis should address the above issues. For example: Although the author has some good points, his article is biased and contains some misinterpretation of data from others’ analysis of the effectiveness of the condom.

Use direct quotes from the author sparingly.
Review the summary you have written. Read over your summary many times to ensure that your words are an accurate description of the author's article.

Support your critique with evidence from the article or other texts.
The summary portion is very important for your critique. You must make the author's argument clear in the summary section for your evaluation to make sense.
Remember, this is not where you say if you liked the article or not. You are assessing the significance and relevance of the article.
Use a topic sentence and supportive arguments for each opinion. For example, you might address a particular strength in the first sentence of the opinion section, followed by several sentences elaborating on the significance of the point.

This should only be about 10% of your overall essay.
For example: This critical review has evaluated the article "Condom use will increase the spread of AIDS" by Anthony Zimmerman. The arguments in the article show the presence of bias, prejudice, argumentative writing without supporting details, and misinformation. These points weaken the author’s arguments and reduce his credibility.

Make sure you have identified and discussed the 3-4 key issues in the article.

Sample Article Reviews

Expert Q&A

↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/grammarpunct/proofreading/
↑ https://libguides.cmich.edu/writinghelp/articlereview
↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4548566/
↑ Jake Adams. Academic Tutor & Test Prep Specialist. Expert Interview. 24 July 2020.
↑ https://guides.library.queensu.ca/introduction-research/writing/critical
↑ https://www.iup.edu/writingcenter/writing-resources/organization-and-structure/creating-an-outline.html
↑ https://writing.umn.edu/sws/assets/pdf/quicktips/titles.pdf
↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_works_cited_periodicals.html
↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4548565/
↑ https://writingcenter.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/593/2014/06/How_to_Summarize_a_Research_Article1.pdf
↑ https://www.uis.edu/learning-hub/writing-resources/handouts/learning-hub/how-to-review-a-journal-article
↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/editing-and-proofreading/

About This Article

If you have to write an article review, read through the original article closely, taking notes and highlighting important sections as you read. Next, rewrite the article in your own words, either in a long paragraph or as an outline. Open your article review by citing the article, then write an introduction which states the article’s thesis. Next, summarize the article, followed by your opinion about whether the article was clear, thorough, and useful. Finish with a paragraph that summarizes the main points of the article and your opinions. To learn more about what to include in your personal critique of the article, keep reading the article! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Write an Article Review: Template & Examples

An article review is an academic assignment that invites you to study a piece of academic research closely. Then, you should present its summary and critically evaluate it using the knowledge you’ve gained in class and during your independent study. If you get such a task at college or university, you shouldn’t confuse it with a response paper, which is a distinct assignment with other purposes (we’ll talk about it in detail below).

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In this article, prepared by Custom-Writing experts, you’ll find:

the intricacies of article review writing;
the difference between an article review and similar assignments;
a step-by-step algorithm for review composition;
a couple of samples to guide you throughout the writing process.

So, if you wish to study our article review example and discover helpful writing tips, keep reading.

❓ What Is an Article Review?

✍️ Writing Steps

📑 Article Review Format

🔗 references.

An article review is an academic paper that summarizes and critically evaluates the information presented in your selected article.

This image shows what an article review is.

The first thing you should note when approaching the task of an article review is that not every article is suitable for this assignment. Let’s have a look at the variety of articles to understand what you can choose from.

Popular Vs. Scholarly Articles

In most cases, you’ll be required to review a scholarly, peer-reviewed article – one composed in compliance with rigorous academic standards. Yet, the Web is also full of popular articles that don’t present original scientific value and shouldn’t be selected for a review.

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Not sure how to distinguish these two types? Here is a comparative table to help you out.

Article Review vs. Response Paper

Now, let’s consider the difference between an article review and a response paper:

If you’re assigned to critique a scholarly article , you will need to compose an article review .
If your subject of analysis is a popular article , you can respond to it with a well-crafted response paper .

The reason for such distinctions is the quality and structure of these two article types. Peer-reviewed, scholarly articles have clear-cut quality criteria, allowing you to conduct and present a structured assessment of the assigned material. Popular magazines have loose or non-existent quality criteria and don’t offer an opportunity for structured evaluation. So, they are only fit for a subjective response, in which you can summarize your reactions and emotions related to the reading material.

All in all, you can structure your response assignments as outlined in the tips below.

✍️ How to Write an Article Review: Step by Step

Here is a tried and tested algorithm for article review writing from our experts. We’ll consider only the critical review variety of this academic assignment. So, let’s get down to the stages you need to cover to get a stellar review.

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Read the Article

As with any reviews, reports, and critiques, you must first familiarize yourself with the assigned material. It’s impossible to review something you haven’t read, so set some time for close, careful reading of the article to identify:

Its topic.
Its type.
The author’s main points and message.
The arguments they use to prove their points.
The methodology they use to approach the subject.

In terms of research type , your article will usually belong to one of three types explained below.

Summarize the Article

Now that you’ve read the text and have a general impression of the content, it’s time to summarize it for your readers. Look into the article’s text closely to determine:

The thesis statement , or general message of the author.
Research question, purpose, and context of research.
Supporting points for the author’s assumptions and claims.
Major findings and supporting evidence.

As you study the article thoroughly, make notes on the margins or write these elements out on a sheet of paper. You can also apply a different technique: read the text section by section and formulate its gist in one phrase or sentence. Once you’re done, you’ll have a summary skeleton in front of you.

Evaluate the Article

The next step of review is content evaluation. Keep in mind that various research types will require a different set of review questions. Here is a complete list of evaluation points you can include.

Get an originally-written paper according to your instructions!

Write the Text

After completing the critical review stage, it’s time to compose your article review.

The format of this assignment is standard – you will have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction should present your article and summarize its content. The body will contain a structured review according to all four dimensions covered in the previous section. The concluding part will typically recap all the main points you’ve identified during your assessment.

It is essential to note that an article review is, first of all, an academic assignment. Therefore, it should follow all rules and conventions of academic composition, such as:

No contractions . Don’t use short forms, such as “don’t,” “can’t,” “I’ll,” etc. in academic writing. You need to spell out all those words.
Formal language and style . Avoid conversational phrasing and words that you would naturally use in blog posts or informal communication. For example, don’t use words like “pretty,” “kind of,” and “like.”
Third-person narrative . Academic reviews should be written from the third-person point of view, avoiding statements like “I think,” “in my opinion,” and so on.
No conversational forms . You shouldn’t turn to your readers directly in the text by addressing them with the pronoun “you.” It’s vital to keep the narrative neutral and impersonal.
Proper abbreviation use . Consult the list of correct abbreviations , like “e.g.” or “i.e.,” for use in your academic writing. If you use informal abbreviations like “FYA” or “f.i.,” your professor will reduce the grade.
Complete sentences . Make sure your sentences contain the subject and the predicate; avoid shortened or sketch-form phrases suitable for a draft only.
No conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence . Remember the FANBOYS rule – don’t start a sentence with words like “and” or “but.” They often seem the right way to build a coherent narrative, but academic writing rules disfavor such usage.
No abbreviations or figures at the beginning of a sentence . Never start a sentence with a number — spell it out if you need to use it anyway. Besides, sentences should never begin with abbreviations like “e.g.”

Finally, a vital rule for an article review is properly formatting the citations. We’ll discuss the correct use of citation styles in the following section.

When composing an article review, keep these points in mind:

Start with a full reference to the reviewed article so the reader can locate it quickly.
Ensure correct formatting of in-text references.
Provide a complete list of used external sources on the last page of the review – your bibliographical entries .

You’ll need to understand the rules of your chosen citation style to meet all these requirements. Below, we’ll discuss the two most common referencing styles – APA and MLA.

Article Review in APA

When you need to compose an article review in the APA format , here is the general bibliographical entry format you should use for journal articles on your reference page:

Author’s last name, First initial. Middle initial. (Year of Publication). Name of the article. Name of the Journal, volume (number), pp. #-#. https://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyy

Horigian, V. E., Schmidt, R. D., & Feaster, D. J. (2021). Loneliness, mental health, and substance use among US young adults during COVID-19. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 53 (1), pp. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2020.1836435

Your in-text citations should follow the author-date format like this:

If you paraphrase the source and mention the author in the text: According to Horigian et al. (2021), young adults experienced increased levels of loneliness, depression, and anxiety during the pandemic.
If you paraphrase the source and don’t mention the author in the text: Young adults experienced increased levels of loneliness, depression, and anxiety during the pandemic (Horigian et al., 2021).
If you quote the source: As Horigian et al. (2021) point out, there were “elevated levels of loneliness, depression, anxiety, alcohol use, and drug use among young adults during COVID-19” (p. 6).

Note that your in-text citations should include “et al.,” as in the examples above, if your article has 3 or more authors. If you have one or two authors, your in-text citations would look like this:

One author: “According to Smith (2020), depression is…” or “Depression is … (Smith, 2020).”
Two authors: “According to Smith and Brown (2020), anxiety means…” or “Anxiety means (Smith & Brown, 2020).”

Finally, in case you have to review a book or a website article, here are the general formats for citing these source types on your APA reference list.

Article Review in MLA

If your assignment requires MLA-format referencing, here’s the general format you should use for citing journal articles on your Works Cited page:

Author’s last name, First name. “Title of an Article.” Title of the Journal , vol. #, no. #, year, pp. #-#.

Horigian, Viviana E., et al. “Loneliness, Mental Health, and Substance Use Among US Young Adults During COVID-19.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , vol. 53, no. 1, 2021, pp. 1-9.

In-text citations in the MLA format follow the author-page citation format and look like this:

According to Horigian et al., young adults experienced increased levels of loneliness, depression, and anxiety during the pandemic (6).
Young adults experienced increased levels of loneliness, depression, and anxiety during the pandemic (Horigian et al. 6).

Like in APA, the abbreviation “et al.” is only needed in MLA if your article has 3 or more authors.

If you need to cite a book or a website page, here are the general MLA formats for these types of sources.

✅ Article Review Template

Here is a handy, universal article review template to help you move on with any review assignment. We’ve tried to make it as generic as possible to guide you in the academic process.

📝 Article Review Examples

The theory is good, but practice is even better. Thus, we’ve created three brief examples to show you how to write an article review. You can study the full-text samples by following the links.

📃 Men, Women, & Money

This article review examines a famous piece, “Men, Women & Money – How the Sexes Differ with Their Finances,” published by Amy Livingston in 2020. The author of this article claims that men generally spend more money than women. She makes this conclusion from a close analysis of gender-specific expenditures across five main categories: food, clothing, cars, entertainment, and general spending patterns. Livingston also looks at men’s approach to saving to argue that counter to the common perception of women’s light-hearted attitude to money, men are those who spend more on average.

📃 When and Why Nationalism Beats Globalism

This is a review of Jonathan Heidt’s 2016 article titled “When and Why Nationalism Beats Globalism,” written as an advocacy of right-wing populism rising in many Western states. The author illustrates the case with the election of Donald Trump as the US President and the rise of right-wing rhetoric in many Western countries. These examples show how nationalist sentiment represents a reaction to global immigration and a failure of globalization.

📃 Sleep Deprivation

This is a review of the American Heart Association’s article titled “The Dangers of Sleep Deprivation.” It discusses how the national organization concerned with the American population’s cardiovascular health links the lack of high-quality sleep to far-reaching health consequences. The organization’s experts reveal how a consistent lack of sleep leads to Alzheimer’s disease development, obesity, type 2 diabetes, etc.

✏️ Article Review FAQ

A high-quality article review should summarize the assigned article’s content and offer data-backed reactions and evaluations of its quality in terms of the article’s purpose, methodology, and data used to argue the main points. It should be detailed, comprehensive, objective, and evidence-based.

The purpose of writing a review is to allow students to reflect on research quality and showcase their critical thinking and evaluation skills. Students should exhibit their mastery of close reading of research publications and their unbiased assessment.

The content of your article review will be the same in any format, with the only difference in the assignment’s formatting before submission. Ensure you have a separate title page made according to APA standards and cite sources using the parenthetical author-date referencing format.

You need to take a closer look at various dimensions of an assigned article to compose a valuable review. Study the author’s object of analysis, the purpose of their research, the chosen method, data, and findings. Evaluate all these dimensions critically to see whether the author has achieved the initial goals. Finally, offer improvement recommendations to add a critique aspect to your paper.

Scientific Article Review: Duke University
Book and Article Reviews: William & Mary, Writing Resources Center
Sample Format for Reviewing a Journal Article: Boonshoft School of Medicine
Research Paper Review – Structure and Format Guidelines: New Jersey Institute of Technology
Article Review: University of Waterloo
Article Review: University of South Australia
How to Write a Journal Article Review: University of Newcastle Library Guides
Writing Help: The Article Review: Central Michigan University Libraries
Write a Critical Review of a Scientific Journal Article: McLaughlin Library
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Article Review

Article Review Writing: A Complete Step-by-Step Guide with Examples

What is an Article Review?

An article review is a critical evaluation and analysis of a piece of writing, typically an academic or journalistic article.

It goes beyond summarizing the content; it involves an in-depth examination of the author's ideas, arguments, and methodologies.

The goal is to provide a well-rounded understanding of the article's strengths, weaknesses, and overall contribution to the field.

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Types of Article Reviews

Article reviews come in various forms, each serving a distinct purpose in the realm of academic or professional discourse. Understanding these types is crucial for tailoring your approach.

Here are some common types of article reviews:

Journal Article Review

A journal article review involves a thorough evaluation of scholarly articles published in academic journals.

It requires summarizing the article's key points, methodology, and findings, emphasizing its contributions to the academic field.

Take a look at the following example to help you understand better.

Example of Journal Article Review

Research Article Review

A research article review focuses on scrutinizing articles with a primary emphasis on research.

This type of review involves evaluating the research design, methodology, results, and their broader implications.

Discussions on the interpretation of results, limitations, and the article's overall contributions are key.

Here is a sample for you to get an idea.

Example of Research Article Review

Science Article Review

A science article review specifically addresses articles within scientific disciplines. It includes summarizing scientific concepts, hypotheses, and experimental methods.

The type of review assesses the reliability of the experimental design, and evaluates the author's interpretation of findings.

Take a look at the following example.

Example of Science Article Review

Critical Review

A critical review involves a balanced critique of a given article. It encompasses providing a comprehensive summary, highlighting key points, and engaging in a critical analysis of strengths and weaknesses.

To get a clearer idea of a critical review, take a look at this example.

Critical Review Example

Article Review Format

When crafting an article review in either APA or MLA format, it's crucial to adhere to the specific guidelines for citing sources.

Below are the bibliographical entries for different types of sources in both APA and MLA styles:

How to Write an Article Review? 10 Easy Steps

Writing an effective article review involves a systematic approach. Follow this step-by-step process to ensure a comprehensive and well-structured analysis.

Step 1: Understand the Assignment

Before diving into the review, carefully read and understand the assignment guidelines.

Pay attention to specific requirements, such as word count, formatting style (APA, MLA), and the aspects your instructor wants you to focus on.

Step 2: Read the Article Thoroughly

Begin by thoroughly reading the article. Take notes on key points, arguments, and evidence presented by the author.

Understand the author's main thesis and the context in which the article was written.

Step 3: Create a Summary

Summarize the main points of the article. Highlight the author's key arguments and findings.

While writing the summary ensure that you capture the essential elements of the article to provide context for your analysis.

Step 4: Identify the Author's Thesis

In this step, pinpoint the author's main thesis or central argument. Understand the purpose of the article and how the author supports their position.

This will serve as a foundation for your critique.

Step 5: Evaluate the Author's Evidence and Methodology

Examine the evidence provided by the author to support their thesis. Assess the reliability and validity of the methodology used.

Consider the sources, data collection methods, and any potential biases.

Step 6: Analyze the Author's Writing Style

Evaluate the author's writing style and how effectively they communicate their ideas.

Consider the clarity of the language, the organization of the content, and the overall persuasiveness of the article.

Step 7: Consider the Article's Contribution

Reflect on the article's contribution to its field of study. Analyze how it fits into the existing literature, its significance, and any potential implications for future research or applications.

Step 8: Write the Introduction

Craft an introduction that includes the article's title, author, publication date, and a brief overview.

State the purpose of your review and your thesis—the main point you'll be analyzing in your review.

Step 9: Develop the Body of the Review

Organize your review by addressing specific aspects such as the author's thesis, methodology, writing style, and the article's contribution.

Use clear paragraphs to structure your analysis logically.

Step 10: Conclude with a Summary and Evaluation

Summarize your main points and restate your overall assessment of the article.

Offer insights into its strengths and weaknesses, and conclude with any recommendations for improvement or suggestions for further research.

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Article Review Outline

Creating a well-organized outline is an essential part of writing a coherent and insightful article review.

This outline given below will guide you through the key sections of your review, ensuring that your analysis is comprehensive and logically structured.

Refer to the following template to understand outlining the article review in detail.

Article Review Format Template

Article Review Examples

Examining article review examples can provide valuable insights into the structure, tone, and depth of analysis expected.

Below are sample article reviews, each illustrating a different approach and focus.

Example of Article Review

Sample of article review assignment pdf

Tips for Writing an Effective Article Review

Crafting an effective article review involves a combination of critical analysis, clarity, and structure.

Here are some valuable tips to guide you through the process:

Start with a Clear Introduction

Kick off your article review by introducing the article's main points and mentioning the publication date, which you can find on the re-title page. Outline the topics you'll cover in your review.

Concise Summary with Unanswered Questions

Provide a short summary of the article, emphasizing its main ideas. Highlight any lingering questions, known as "unanswered questions," that the article may have triggered. Use a basic article review template to help structure your thoughts.

Illustrate with Examples

Use examples from the article to illustrate your points. If there are tables or figures in the article, discuss them to make your review more concrete and easily understandable.

Organize Clearly with a Summary Section

Keep your review straightforward and well-organized. Begin with the start of the article, express your thoughts on what you liked or didn't like, and conclude with a summary section. This follows a basic plan for clarity.

Constructive Criticism

When providing criticism, be constructive. If there are elements you don't understand, frame them as "unanswered questions." This approach shows engagement and curiosity.

Smoothly Connect Your Ideas

Ensure your thoughts flow naturally throughout your review. Use simple words and sentences. If you have questions about the article, let them guide your review organically.

Revise and Check for Clarity

Before finishing, go through your review. Correct any mistakes and ensure it sounds clear. Check if you followed your plan, used simple words, and incorporated the keywords effectively. This makes your review better and more accessible for others.

In conclusion , writing an effective article review involves a thoughtful balance of summarizing key points, and addressing unanswered questions.

By following a simple and structured approach, you can create a review that not only analyzes the content but also adds value to the reader's understanding.

Remember to organize your thoughts logically, use clear language, and provide examples from the article to support your points.

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Our team of experienced writers is here to help you with article reviews and other school tasks.

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An article review is a critical evaluation of a scholarly or scientific piece, which aims to summarize its main ideas, assess its contributions, and provide constructive feedback. A well-written review not only benefits the author of the article under scrutiny but also serves as a valuable resource for fellow researchers and scholars. Follow these steps to create an effective and informative article review:

1. Understand the purpose: Before diving into the article, it is important to understand the intent of writing a review. This helps in focusing your thoughts, directing your analysis, and ensuring your review adds value to the academic community.

2. Read the article thoroughly: Carefully read the article multiple times to get a complete understanding of its content, arguments, and conclusions. As you read, take notes on key points, supporting evidence, and any areas that require further exploration or clarification.

3. Summarize the main ideas: In your review’s introduction, briefly outline the primary themes and arguments presented by the author(s). Keep it concise but sufficiently informative so that readers can quickly grasp the essence of the article.

4. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses: In subsequent paragraphs, assess the strengths and limitations of the article based on factors such as methodology, quality of evidence presented, coherence of arguments, and alignment with existing literature in the field. Be fair and objective while providing your critique.

5. Discuss any implications: Deliberate on how this particular piece contributes to or challenges existing knowledge in its discipline. You may also discuss potential improvements for future research or explore real-world applications stemming from this study.

6. Provide recommendations: Finally, offer suggestions for both the author(s) and readers regarding how they can further build on this work or apply its findings in practice.

7. Proofread and revise: Once your initial draft is complete, go through it carefully for clarity, accuracy, and coherence. Revise as necessary, ensuring your review is both informative and engaging for readers.

Sample Review:

A Critical Review of “The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health”

Introduction:

“The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health” is a timely article which investigates the relationship between social media usage and psychological well-being. The authors present compelling evidence to support their argument that excessive use of social media can result in decreased self-esteem, increased anxiety, and a negative impact on interpersonal relationships.

Strengths and weaknesses:

One of the strengths of this article lies in its well-structured methodology utilizing a variety of sources, including quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews. This approach provides a comprehensive view of the topic, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of the effects of social media on mental health. However, it would have been beneficial if the authors included a larger sample size to increase the reliability of their conclusions. Additionally, exploring how different platforms may influence mental health differently could have added depth to the analysis.

Implications:

The findings in this article contribute significantly to ongoing debates surrounding the psychological implications of social media use. It highlights the potential dangers that excessive engagement with online platforms may pose to one’s mental well-being and encourages further research into interventions that could mitigate these risks. The study also offers an opportunity for educators and policy-makers to take note and develop strategies to foster healthier online behavior.

Recommendations:

Future researchers should consider investigating how specific social media platforms impact mental health outcomes, as this could lead to more targeted interventions. For practitioners, implementing educational programs aimed at promoting healthy online habits may be beneficial in mitigating the potential negative consequences associated with excessive social media use.

Conclusion:

Overall, “The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health” is an important and informative piece that raises awareness about a pressing issue in today’s digital age. Given its minor limitations, it provides valuable

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How to Write an Article Review: Tips and Examples

Did you know that article reviews are not just academic exercises but also a valuable skill in today's information age? In a world inundated with content, being able to dissect and evaluate articles critically can help you separate the wheat from the chaff. Whether you're a student aiming to excel in your coursework or a professional looking to stay well-informed, mastering the art of writing article reviews is an invaluable skill.

Short Description

In this article, our research paper writing service experts will start by unraveling the concept of article reviews and discussing the various types. You'll also gain insights into the art of formatting your review effectively. To ensure you're well-prepared, we'll take you through the pre-writing process, offering tips on setting the stage for your review. But it doesn't stop there. You'll find a practical example of an article review to help you grasp the concepts in action. To complete your journey, we'll guide you through the post-writing process, equipping you with essential proofreading techniques to ensure your work shines with clarity and precision!

What Is an Article Review: Grasping the Concept

A review article is a type of professional paper writing that demands a high level of in-depth analysis and a well-structured presentation of arguments. It is a critical, constructive evaluation of literature in a particular field through summary, classification, analysis, and comparison.

If you write a scientific review, you have to use database searches to portray the research. Your primary goal is to summarize everything and present a clear understanding of the topic you've been working on.

Writing Involves:

Summarization, classification, analysis, critiques, and comparison.
The analysis, evaluation, and comparison require the use of theories, ideas, and research relevant to the subject area of the article.
It is also worth nothing if a review does not introduce new information, but instead presents a response to another writer's work.
Check out other samples to gain a better understanding of how to review the article.

Types of Review

When it comes to article reviews, there's more than one way to approach the task. Understanding the various types of reviews is like having a versatile toolkit at your disposal. In this section, we'll walk you through the different dimensions of review types, each offering a unique perspective and purpose. Whether you're dissecting a scholarly article, critiquing a piece of literature, or evaluating a product, you'll discover the diverse landscape of article reviews and how to navigate it effectively.

Journal Article Review

Just like other types of reviews, a journal article review assesses the merits and shortcomings of a published work. To illustrate, consider a review of an academic paper on climate change, where the writer meticulously analyzes and interprets the article's significance within the context of environmental science.

Research Article Review

Distinguished by its focus on research methodologies, a research article review scrutinizes the techniques used in a study and evaluates them in light of the subsequent analysis and critique. For instance, when reviewing a research article on the effects of a new drug, the reviewer would delve into the methods employed to gather data and assess their reliability.

Science Article Review

In the realm of scientific literature, a science article review encompasses a wide array of subjects. Scientific publications often provide extensive background information, which can be instrumental in conducting a comprehensive analysis. For example, when reviewing an article about the latest breakthroughs in genetics, the reviewer may draw upon the background knowledge provided to facilitate a more in-depth evaluation of the publication.

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Formatting an Article Review

The format of the article should always adhere to the citation style required by your professor. If you're not sure, seek clarification on the preferred format and ask him to clarify several other pointers to complete the formatting of an article review adequately.

How Many Publications Should You Review?

In what format should you cite your articles (MLA, APA, ASA, Chicago, etc.)?
What length should your review be?
Should you include a summary, critique, or personal opinion in your assignment?
Do you need to call attention to a theme or central idea within the articles?
Does your instructor require background information?

When you know the answers to these questions, you may start writing your assignment. Below are examples of MLA and APA formats, as those are the two most common citation styles.

Using the APA Format

Articles appear most commonly in academic journals, newspapers, and websites. If you write an article review in the APA format, you will need to write bibliographical entries for the sources you use:

Web : Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year, Month, Date of Publication). Title. Retrieved from {link}
Journal : Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Publication Year). Publication Title. Periodical Title, Volume(Issue), pp.-pp.
Newspaper : Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year, Month, Date of Publication). Publication Title. Magazine Title, pp. xx-xx.

Using MLA Format

Web : Last, First Middle Initial. “Publication Title.” Website Title. Website Publisher, Date Month Year Published. Web. Date Month Year Accessed.
Newspaper : Last, First M. “Publication Title.” Newspaper Title [City] Date, Month, Year Published: Page(s). Print.
Journal : Last, First M. “Publication Title.” Journal Title Series Volume. Issue (Year Published): Page(s). Database Name. Web. Date Month Year Accessed.

Enhance your writing effortlessly with EssayPro.com , where you can order an article review or any other writing task. Our team of expert writers specializes in various fields, ensuring your work is not just summarized, but deeply analyzed and professionally presented. Ideal for students and professionals alike, EssayPro offers top-notch writing assistance tailored to your needs. Elevate your writing today with our skilled team at your article review writing service !

The Pre-Writing Process

Facing this task for the first time can really get confusing and can leave you unsure of where to begin. To create a top-notch article review, start with a few preparatory steps. Here are the two main stages from our dissertation services to get you started:

Step 1: Define the right organization for your review. Knowing the future setup of your paper will help you define how you should read the article. Here are the steps to follow:

Summarize the article — seek out the main points, ideas, claims, and general information presented in the article.
Define the positive points — identify the strong aspects, ideas, and insightful observations the author has made.
Find the gaps —- determine whether or not the author has any contradictions, gaps, or inconsistencies in the article and evaluate whether or not he or she used a sufficient amount of arguments and information to support his or her ideas.
Identify unanswered questions — finally, identify if there are any questions left unanswered after reading the piece.

Step 2: Move on and review the article. Here is a small and simple guide to help you do it right:

Start off by looking at and assessing the title of the piece, its abstract, introductory part, headings and subheadings, opening sentences in its paragraphs, and its conclusion.
First, read only the beginning and the ending of the piece (introduction and conclusion). These are the parts where authors include all of their key arguments and points. Therefore, if you start with reading these parts, it will give you a good sense of the author's main points.
Finally, read the article fully.

These three steps make up most of the prewriting process. After you are done with them, you can move on to writing your own review—and we are going to guide you through the writing process as well.

Outline and Template

As you progress with reading your article, organize your thoughts into coherent sections in an outline. As you read, jot down important facts, contributions, or contradictions. Identify the shortcomings and strengths of your publication. Begin to map your outline accordingly.

If your professor does not want a summary section or a personal critique section, then you must alleviate those parts from your writing. Much like other assignments, an article review must contain an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Thus, you might consider dividing your outline according to these sections as well as subheadings within the body. If you find yourself troubled with the pre-writing and the brainstorming process for this assignment, seek out a sample outline.

Your custom essay must contain these constituent parts:

Pre-Title Page - Before diving into your review, start with essential details: article type, publication title, and author names with affiliations (position, department, institution, location, and email). Include corresponding author info if needed.
Running Head - In APA format, use a concise title (under 40 characters) to ensure consistent formatting.
Summary Page - Optional but useful. Summarize the article in 800 words, covering background, purpose, results, and methodology, avoiding verbatim text or references.
Title Page - Include the full title, a 250-word abstract, and 4-6 keywords for discoverability.
Introduction - Set the stage with an engaging overview of the article.
Body - Organize your analysis with headings and subheadings.
Works Cited/References - Properly cite all sources used in your review.
Optional Suggested Reading Page - If permitted, suggest further readings for in-depth exploration.
Tables and Figure Legends (if instructed by the professor) - Include visuals when requested by your professor for clarity.

Example of an Article Review

You might wonder why we've dedicated a section of this article to discuss an article review sample. Not everyone may realize it, but examining multiple well-constructed examples of review articles is a crucial step in the writing process. In the following section, our essay writing service experts will explain why.

Looking through relevant article review examples can be beneficial for you in the following ways:

To get you introduced to the key works of experts in your field.
To help you identify the key people engaged in a particular field of science.
To help you define what significant discoveries and advances were made in your field.
To help you unveil the major gaps within the existing knowledge of your field—which contributes to finding fresh solutions.
To help you find solid references and arguments for your own review.
To help you generate some ideas about any further field of research.
To help you gain a better understanding of the area and become an expert in this specific field.
To get a clear idea of how to write a good review.

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Steps for Writing an Article Review

Here is a guide with critique paper format on how to write a review paper:

Step 1: Write the Title

First of all, you need to write a title that reflects the main focus of your work. Respectively, the title can be either interrogative, descriptive, or declarative.

Step 2: Cite the Article

Next, create a proper citation for the reviewed article and input it following the title. At this step, the most important thing to keep in mind is the style of citation specified by your instructor in the requirements for the paper. For example, an article citation in the MLA style should look as follows:

Author's last and first name. "The title of the article." Journal's title and issue(publication date): page(s). Print

Abraham John. "The World of Dreams." Virginia Quarterly 60.2(1991): 125-67. Print.

Step 3: Article Identification

After your citation, you need to include the identification of your reviewed article:

Title of the article
Title of the journal
Year of publication

All of this information should be included in the first paragraph of your paper.

The report "Poverty increases school drop-outs" was written by Brian Faith – a Health officer – in 2000.

Step 4: Introduction

Your organization in an assignment like this is of the utmost importance. Before embarking on your writing process, you should outline your assignment or use an article review template to organize your thoughts coherently.

If you are wondering how to start an article review, begin with an introduction that mentions the article and your thesis for the review.
Follow up with a summary of the main points of the article.
Highlight the positive aspects and facts presented in the publication.
Critique the publication by identifying gaps, contradictions, disparities in the text, and unanswered questions.

Step 5: Summarize the Article

Make a summary of the article by revisiting what the author has written about. Note any relevant facts and findings from the article. Include the author's conclusions in this section.

Step 6: Critique It

Present the strengths and weaknesses you have found in the publication. Highlight the knowledge that the author has contributed to the field. Also, write about any gaps and/or contradictions you have found in the article. Take a standpoint of either supporting or not supporting the author's assertions, but back up your arguments with facts and relevant theories that are pertinent to that area of knowledge. Rubrics and templates can also be used to evaluate and grade the person who wrote the article.

Step 7: Craft a Conclusion

In this section, revisit the critical points of your piece, your findings in the article, and your critique. Also, write about the accuracy, validity, and relevance of the results of the article review. Present a way forward for future research in the field of study. Before submitting your article, keep these pointers in mind:

As you read the article, highlight the key points. This will help you pinpoint the article's main argument and the evidence that they used to support that argument.
While you write your review, use evidence from your sources to make a point. This is best done using direct quotations.
Select quotes and supporting evidence adequately and use direct quotations sparingly. Take time to analyze the article adequately.
Every time you reference a publication or use a direct quotation, use a parenthetical citation to avoid accidentally plagiarizing your article.
Re-read your piece a day after you finish writing it. This will help you to spot grammar mistakes and to notice any flaws in your organization.
Use a spell-checker and get a second opinion on your paper.

The Post-Writing Process: Proofread Your Work

Finally, when all of the parts of your article review are set and ready, you have one last thing to take care of — proofreading. Although students often neglect this step, proofreading is a vital part of the writing process and will help you polish your paper to ensure that there are no mistakes or inconsistencies.

To proofread your paper properly, start by reading it fully and checking the following points:

Punctuation
Other mistakes

Afterward, take a moment to check for any unnecessary information in your paper and, if found, consider removing it to streamline your content. Finally, double-check that you've covered at least 3-4 key points in your discussion.

And remember, if you ever need help with proofreading, rewriting your essay, or even want to buy essay , our friendly team is always here to assist you.

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How to Review a Journal Article

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For many kinds of assignments, like a literature review , you may be asked to offer a critique or review of a journal article. This is an opportunity for you as a scholar to offer your qualified opinion and evaluation of how another scholar has composed their article, argument, and research. That means you will be expected to go beyond a simple summary of the article and evaluate it on a deeper level. As a college student, this might sound intimidating. However, as you engage with the research process, you are becoming immersed in a particular topic, and your insights about the way that topic is presented are valuable and can contribute to the overall conversation surrounding your topic.

IMPORTANT NOTE!!

Some disciplines, like Criminal Justice, may only want you to summarize the article without including your opinion or evaluation. If your assignment is to summarize the article only, please see our literature review handout.

Before getting started on the critique, it is important to review the article thoroughly and critically. To do this, we recommend take notes, annotating , and reading the article several times before critiquing. As you read, be sure to note important items like the thesis, purpose, research questions, hypotheses, methods, evidence, key findings, major conclusions, tone, and publication information. Depending on your writing context, some of these items may not be applicable.

Questions to Consider

To evaluate a source, consider some of the following questions. They are broken down into different categories, but answering these questions will help you consider what areas to examine. With each category, we recommend identifying the strengths and weaknesses in each since that is a critical part of evaluation.

Evaluating Purpose and Argument

How well is the purpose made clear in the introduction through background/context and thesis?
How well does the abstract represent and summarize the article’s major points and argument?
How well does the objective of the experiment or of the observation fill a need for the field?
How well is the argument/purpose articulated and discussed throughout the body of the text?
How well does the discussion maintain cohesion?

Evaluating the Presentation/Organization of Information

How appropriate and clear is the title of the article?
Where could the author have benefited from expanding, condensing, or omitting ideas?
How clear are the author’s statements? Challenge ambiguous statements.
What underlying assumptions does the author have, and how does this affect the credibility or clarity of their article?
How objective is the author in his or her discussion of the topic?
How well does the organization fit the article’s purpose and articulate key goals?

Evaluating Methods

How appropriate are the study design and methods for the purposes of the study?
How detailed are the methods being described? Is the author leaving out important steps or considerations?
Have the procedures been presented in enough detail to enable the reader to duplicate them?

Evaluating Data

Scan and spot-check calculations. Are the statistical methods appropriate?
Do you find any content repeated or duplicated?
How many errors of fact and interpretation does the author include? (You can check on this by looking up the references the author cites).
What pertinent literature has the author cited, and have they used this literature appropriately?

Following, we have an example of a summary and an evaluation of a research article. Note that in most literature review contexts, the summary and evaluation would be much shorter. This extended example shows the different ways a student can critique and write about an article.

Chik, A. (2012). Digital gameplay for autonomous foreign language learning: Gamers’ and language teachers’ perspectives. In H. Reinders (ed.), Digital games in language learning and teaching (pp. 95-114). Eastbourne, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Be sure to include the full citation either in a reference page or near your evaluation if writing an annotated bibliography .

In Chik’s article “Digital Gameplay for Autonomous Foreign Language Learning: Gamers’ and Teachers’ Perspectives”, she explores the ways in which “digital gamers manage gaming and gaming-related activities to assume autonomy in their foreign language learning,” (96) which is presented in contrast to how teachers view the “pedagogical potential” of gaming. The research was described as an “umbrella project” consisting of two parts. The first part examined 34 language teachers’ perspectives who had limited experience with gaming (only five stated they played games regularly) (99). Their data was recorded through a survey, class discussion, and a seven-day gaming trial done by six teachers who recorded their reflections through personal blog posts. The second part explored undergraduate gaming habits of ten Hong Kong students who were regular gamers. Their habits were recorded through language learning histories, videotaped gaming sessions, blog entries of gaming practices, group discussion sessions, stimulated recall sessions on gaming videos, interviews with other gamers, and posts from online discussion forums. The research shows that while students recognize the educational potential of games and have seen benefits of it in their lives, the instructors overall do not see the positive impacts of gaming on foreign language learning.

The summary includes the article’s purpose, methods, results, discussion, and citations when necessary.

This article did a good job representing the undergraduate gamers’ voices through extended quotes and stories. Particularly for the data collection of the undergraduate gamers, there were many opportunities for an in-depth examination of their gaming practices and histories. However, the representation of the teachers in this study was very uneven when compared to the students. Not only were teachers labeled as numbers while the students picked out their own pseudonyms, but also when viewing the data collection, the undergraduate students were more closely examined in comparison to the teachers in the study. While the students have fifteen extended quotes describing their experiences in their research section, the teachers only have two of these instances in their section, which shows just how imbalanced the study is when presenting instructor voices.

Some research methods, like the recorded gaming sessions, were only used with students whereas teachers were only asked to blog about their gaming experiences. This creates a richer narrative for the students while also failing to give instructors the chance to have more nuanced perspectives. This lack of nuance also stems from the emphasis of the non-gamer teachers over the gamer teachers. The non-gamer teachers’ perspectives provide a stark contrast to the undergraduate gamer experiences and fits neatly with the narrative of teachers not valuing gaming as an educational tool. However, the study mentioned five teachers that were regular gamers whose perspectives are left to a short section at the end of the presentation of the teachers’ results. This was an opportunity to give the teacher group a more complex story, and the opportunity was entirely missed.

Additionally, the context of this study was not entirely clear. The instructors were recruited through a master’s level course, but the content of the course and the institution’s background is not discussed. Understanding this context helps us understand the course’s purpose(s) and how those purposes may have influenced the ways in which these teachers interpreted and saw games. It was also unclear how Chik was connected to this masters’ class and to the students. Why these particular teachers and students were recruited was not explicitly defined and also has the potential to skew results in a particular direction.

Overall, I was inclined to agree with the idea that students can benefit from language acquisition through gaming while instructors may not see the instructional value, but I believe the way the research was conducted and portrayed in this article made it very difficult to support Chik’s specific findings.

Some professors like you to begin an evaluation with something positive but isn’t always necessary.

The evaluation is clearly organized and uses transitional phrases when moving to a new topic.

This evaluation includes a summative statement that gives the overall impression of the article at the end, but this can also be placed at the beginning of the evaluation.

This evaluation mainly discusses the representation of data and methods. However, other areas, like organization, are open to critique.

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Article review writing format, steps, examples and illustration PDF Compiled by Mohammed Yismaw

2021, Article review writing format, steps, examples and illustration PDF Compiled by Mohammed Yismaw

The purpose of this document is to help students and researchers understand how a review of an academic journal is conducted and reported in different fields of study. Review articles in academic journals that analyze or discuss researches previously published by others, rather than reporting new research results or findings. Summaries and critiques are two ways to write a review of a scientific journal article. Both types of writing ask you first to read and understand an article from the primary literature about your topic. The summary involves briefly but accurately stating the key points of the article for a reader who has not read the original article. The critique begins by summarizing the article and then analyzes and evaluates the author’s research. Summaries and critiques help you learn to synthesize information from different sources and are usually limited to two pages maximum.

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Firms tap into user knowledge to learn about the users’ needs. While users have been recognized as a valuable source of knowledge for innovation, few studies have investigated how their knowledge is integrated into innovation processes in the context of complex products and systems (CoPS). The purpose of this study is to reveal the practices of CoPS manufacturers to facilitate user knowledge utilization for innovation. We investigate two case companies, a medical device manufacturer and an aircraft manufacturer, and report on seven managerial practices for utilizing user knowledge. We adopt the absorptive capacity model in structuring our findings and elaborate three of the model's sub-capabilities (recognition of the value of user knowledge, acquisition of user knowledge, and assimilation/transformation of user knowledge) by proposing that each is associated with a distinct managerial goal and related practices: (1) Sensitizing the organization to the innovation potential of user knowledge, (2) identifying and gaining access to suitable user knowledge, and (3) analyzing and interpreting user knowledge and integrating it into product development. Our study contributes to the innovation management literature by analyzing the capabilities required to utilize user knowledge throughout the CoPS innovation process.

Information & Management

Diffusion of digital technologies into the manufacturing industry has created new opportunities for innovation that firms must address to remain competitive. We investigate the role of customer and user knowledge in the digital innovation processes of three global B2B manufacturing companies. We find that the B2B manufacturing industry's characteristics influence how users and customers may be leveraged. Customers making the purchasing decisions are considered for knowledge about short-term changes in market needs, while users working directly with the products provide long-term guidance for digital innovation. We identify practices for acquiring, distributing, and using customer and user knowledge for digital innovation.

Journal of business market management

Patricia Sandmeier

Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation

Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation JEMI

Given the rising role of users in innovation processes and the increasing amount of research in this field the aim of this paper is to explore the limits of our understanding of the user innovation (UI) concept. In doing so, the study addresses four basic questions: (1) Why do users create and share innovation? (2) Who is the user-innovator? (3) What type of innovation do users create? (4) How do users innovate? The results of a systematic literature review identified the main research streams on user innovation, together with weaknesses of past research and perspectives for future studies.

How to Write an Article Review: Tips, Outline, Format

Have you been assigned an article review paper, but you are unsure where to start, or what is a review article at all? There is no need to worry, as EssayService has put together a top guide for you! Find out all about an article review to master your assignment.

What is an Article Review?

In simple terms, an article review essay is like a summary and evaluation of another professional or expert's work. It may also be referred to as a literature review that includes an outline of the most recent research on the subject, or a critical review that focuses on a specific article with smaller scope. Article review can be used for many reasons; for example, a teacher or lecturer may wish to introduce their students to a new subject by reviewing a professional's piece. You can also learn about the most important works of specialists in your industry by looking at relevant article review examples.

Also, a newspaper article review example could be a journalist writing a critique about another competitor's published work.

In comparison, a book review article example could be critiqued by a fellow author or even a student in the chosen field.

Depending on the critique criteria and the work being reviewed, there could also be certain points asked for addition which should be checked and noted by the lecturer or supervisor. Otherwise, follow the article review guidelines from our write my essay service to complete the assignment in no time.

Key points when writing an article review:

Use the article review template from our paper writing service to get through the assignment as fast as possible so you will not waste any time.

How to Start an Article Review?

Firstly read the work being reviewed as much as possible and look up key phrases and words that are not understood.
Discuss the work with other professionals or colleagues to collect more opinions and get a more balanced impression.
Highlight important sections or sentences and refer this to your knowledge in the topic, do you agree or disagree and what does this contribute to the field?
Then re-write the key arguments and findings into your own words this will help gain better understanding into the paper. This can be just written as an outline also and will help decide which points are wanted to discuss later.

If you feel you do not have enough time to create a critique worthy of your time, then come to EssayService and order a custom Article review online.

You can order essay independent of type, for example:

nursing essay;
law essay writing;
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The best way to write an effective essay would be to draw up a plan or outline of what needs to be covered and use it for guidance throughout the critique.

Article Review Formatting

There is no one-fits-all article format you can follow in your review. In fact, the formatting is dictated by the citation style specified by your professor in the task requirements. Thus, be sure to clarify the preferred style before you jump straight to writing to handle the given assignment right.

APA Format Article Review

Writing an APA style article review, you will most likely use articles from journals, websites, and newspapers. For each source, you will have to create properly formatted bibliographical entries.

Here is how to write an article review APA:

Journal: Author’s last name, First and middle initial. (Year of Publication). Publication Title. Periodical Title, Volume(Issue), pp.-pp.
Website: Last name, initials. (Date of Publication). Title. Retrieved from {link}
Newspaper: Last name, initials. (Date of Publication). Title. Magazine Title, pp. xx-xx.

MLA Format Article Review

Tips for citing sources in an article review MLA format:

Journal: Last name, First name Middle initial. “Title.” Journal Title Series Volume. Issue (Year of Publication): Page(s). Database Name. Web. Date Accessed.
Website: Last, First M. “Title.” Website Title. Publisher, Date Published. Web. Date Accessed.
Newspaper: Last, First M. “Title.” Newspaper Title [City] Date of Publication: Page(s). Print.

Article Review Outline

Planning out an outline for your paper will help writing and to put it together so therefore saving you time in the long run.

Some questions to help with the outline of a critique:

What does the article set out to do or prove?
Are the main ideas clear and defined?
How substantial is the evidence?
Where does the article fit in its specific field?
Does it provide new knowledge on the topic?
What are the central theories and assumptions?
Is the writer conclusive at getting their point across?

Here is a typical article review format to follow:

Use our article review template to get through the assignment as fast as possible so you will not waste any time.

Article Review Title

Firstly start with creating a title for your critique, this should be something to do with the focus of the work that is being reviewed. An approach could be to make it descriptive or also in a more creative way think of something that intrigues the reader. After the title, this is a good place to correctly cite the paper being critiqued and include the important details for example, the author, title of publication, any page references. The style in which the citation is written will depend on which is best for this type of work being reviewed.

Article Review Introduction

The introduction should be a brief glimpse into what the author was writing about and any other details the audience will find interesting. Maybe some background details on the piece that is not already known or something that contributes to the review itself. It is a good idea to start by introducing the work at the start of the paragraph and then include a ' hook '. Include the writer's thesis if there is one and put it at the end but include your own thesis towards the critique near the beginning of this section.

Article Review Body

When constructing the summary section, write down the important points and findings in the piece in your own words. Include how the claims are supported and backed up with evidence but use direct quotes as sparing as possible. Do not put in any information known to professionals in the field or topic, but detail any conclusions the work came to. Make sure the paper is not just copied word for word and is actually summarized by yourself; this will also help the review stage.

To make an accurate critique, break down the work and express opinions on whether it achieves its goals and how useful it is in explaining the topics for an article review. Decide if the paper contributes to its field and is important and credible to the given field. Back up all the claims with evidence from the summary or another source. If using another text, remember to cite it correctly in the bibliography section. Look at how strong the points are and do they contribute to the argument. Try to identify any biases the writer might have and use this to make a fair critique. This part is only for opinions of the piece's significance, not including whether you liked it. Furthermore, the different types of audiences that would benefit from the paper can be mentioned in this section.

Article Review Conclusion

In the conclusion section of the critique, there should only be one or two paragraphs in which a summary of key points and opinions in the piece are included. Also, summarize the paper's significance to its field and how accurate the work is. Depending on the type of critique or work evaluated, it is also possible to include comments on future research or the topic to be discussed further.

If other sources have been used, construct a bibliography section and correctly cite all works utilized in the critique.

The APA format is very common in an article review and stands for American Psychology Association. This will include a 'references list' at the end of the critique and in-text citations, mentioning the author's last name, page number, and publication date.

There are also MLA and Chicago formats for citations with slight differences in a name, like using a 'works cited' page for MLA. More can be found in this guide on the subtle differences between the types of citation methods under the heading 'Creating a bibliography.'

Article Review Example

Article review writing tips.

If you are interested in best scholarships for high school seniors , the following tips will be handy while writing your essay or article:

Allow enough time to complete the research and writing of the critique. The number one problem with creating a critique is running out of time to make it the best it can be. This can be avoided by effective planning and keeping on time with the deadlines you set out.
Collect twice more research than you think is needed to write a review. This will help when coming to the writing stage as not all the information collected will be used in the final draft.
Write in a style that is compatible with the work being critiqued. This will be better for whoever requested the critique and also will make paper easier to construct.
A summary and evaluation must be written. Do not leave out either part as one complements the other and is vital to create a critique worth reading.
Be clear and explain well every statement made about the piece . Everything that is unknown to professionals in the field should be explained and all comments should be easy to follow for the reader.
Do not just describe the work, analyze and interpret it. The critique should be in depth and give the audience some detailed interpretations of the work in a professional way.
Give an assessment of the quality in the writing and of what standard it is. Evaluate every aspect in the paper so that the audience can see where it fits into the rest of the related works. Give opinions based on fact and do not leave any comments without reason as this will not count for anything.

How to Write an Article Review?

Writing a review article is not that hard if you know what steps to take. Below is a step-by-step guide on how to write a review example quickly and easily.

Before You Start

Before you start writing your review essay, there are a few pre-writing steps to take. The pre-writing process should consist of the following steps:

Pick the subject of your review (if it wasn’t specified by your professor);
Read the article fully multiple times;
Summarize the main ideas, points, and claims made in the article;
Define the positive (strong) aspects;
Identify the gaps or inconsistencies;
Find the questions that remained unanswered.

All these steps are needed to help you define the direction for your review article and find the main ideas you’d like to cover in it.

After you review articles and define the key ideas, gaps, and other details, map out your future paper by creating a detailed outline.

Here are the core elements that must be included:

Pre-title page;
Corresponding author details (optional);
Running head (only for the APA style);
Summary page (optional);
Title page;
Introduction;
References/Works Cited;
Suggested Reading page (optional);
Tables and Figure Legends (if required by the professor).

This step is vital to organize your thoughts and ensure a proper structure of your work. Thus, be sure not to skip this step.

When you have an outline, students can move on to the writing stage by formulating compelling titles for their article reviews. Titles should be declarative, interrogative, or descriptive to reflect the core focus of the paper.

Article Citation

After the title should follow a proper citation of the piece you are going to review. Write a citation according to the required style, and feel free to check out a well-written article review example to see how it should look like.

Article Identification

Start the first paragraph of your review with concise and clear article identification that specifies its title, author, name of the resource (e.g., journal, web, etc.), and the year of publication.

Following the identification, write a short introductory paragraph. It should be to the point and state a clear thesis for your review.

Summary and Critique

In the main body of your article review, you should first make a detailed but not too extensive summary of the article you reviewed, its main ideas, statements, and findings. In this part, you should also reflect on the conclusion made by the author of the original article.

After a general summary should follow an objective critique. In this part of your paper, you have to state and analyze the main strengths and weaknesses of the article. Also, you need to point out any gaps or unanswered questions that are still there. And clarify your stance on the author’s assertions.

Lastly, you need to craft a compelling conclusion that recaps the key points of your review and gives the final, logical evaluation of the piece that was reviewed.

After this, proofread your work and submit it.

No Time Left For Your Due Assignment

Now we hope you understand how to write a review of an article. However, we know that writing a great article review requires a lot of time to properly research the work. To save your precious time, visit EssayService, where our team of top essay writers will help you. The team can even provide you with the best article review topics! You can learn more at the college essay writing service page where we have free guides with all the essay writing tips and tricks!

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Article Review Examples and Samples

Reviewing an article is not as easy as it sounds: it requires a critical mind and doing some extra research. Check out our article review samples to gain a better understanding of how to review articles yourself.

How to Write an Article Review: A Comprehensive Guide

Writing an article review can be a complex task. It requires a careful summary of the writer’s article, a thorough evaluation of its key arguments, and a clear understanding of the subject area or discipline. This guide provides guidelines and tips for preparing and writing an effective article review.

Understanding an Article Review

An article review is a critique or assessment of another’s work, typically written by experts in the field. It involves summarizing the writer’s piece, evaluating its main points, and providing an analysis of the content. A review article isn’t just a simple summary; it’s a critical assessment that reflects your understanding and interpretation of the writer’s work.

Preparing for an Article Review

Before you start writing, you need to spend time preparing. This involves getting familiar with the author’s work, conducting research, and identifying the main points or central ideas in the text. It’s crucial to understand the subject area or discipline the writer’s article falls under to provide a comprehensive review.

Writing the Summary

The first part of your article review should provide a summary of the writer’s article. This isn’t a simple recounting of the article; it’s an overview or summation that highlights the key arguments and central ideas. It should give the reader a clear understanding of the writer’s main points and the overall structure of the article.

Evaluating the Article

The evaluation or assessment is the heart of your article review. Here, you analyze the writer’s piece, critique their main points, and assess the validity of their arguments. This evaluation should be based on your research and your understanding of the subject area. It’s important to be critical, but fair in your assessment.

Consulting Experts

Consulting experts or professionals in the field can be a valuable part of writing an article review. They can provide insights, add depth to your critique, and validate your evaluation. Remember, an article review is not just about your opinion, but also about how the writer’s piece is perceived by experts in the field.

Writing the Review

Now that you have your summary and evaluation, it’s time to start writing your review. Begin with an introduction that provides a brief overview of the writer’s article and your intended critique. The body of your review should contain your detailed summary and evaluation. Finally, conclude your review by summarizing your critique and providing your final thoughts on the writer’s piece.

Following Guidelines

While writing your article review, it’s important to adhere to the guidelines provided by your instructor or the journal you’re writing for. These recommendations often include specific formatting and structure requirements, as well as suggestions on the tone and style of your review.

Revisiting the Writer’s Article

As you work on your article review, don’t forget to revisit the writer’s article from time to time. This allows you to maintain a fresh perspective on the writer’s piece and ensures that your evaluation is accurate and comprehensive. The ability to relate to the author’s work is crucial in writing an effective critique.

Highlighting the Main Points

The main points or key arguments of the writer’s article should be at the forefront of your review. These central ideas form the crux of the author’s work and are, therefore, essential to your summary and evaluation. Be sure to clearly identify these points and discuss their significance and impact in the context of the field.

Engaging with the Field

An article review isn’t just about the writer’s article – it’s also about the broader subject area or discipline. Engage with the field by discussing relevant research, theories, and debates. This not only adds depth to your review but also positions the writer’s piece within a larger academic conversation.

Incorporating Expert Opinions

Incorporating the opinions of experts or authorities in the field strengthens your review. Experts can provide valuable insights, challenge your assumptions, and help you see the writer’s article from different perspectives. They can also validate your evaluation and lend credibility to your review.

The Role of Research in Your Review

Research plays a vital role in crafting an article review. It informs your understanding of the writer’s article, the main points, and the field. It also provides the necessary context for your evaluation. Be sure to conduct thorough research and incorporate relevant studies and investigations into your review.

Finalizing Your Review

Before submitting your review, take some time to revise and refine your writing. Check for clarity, coherence, and conciseness. Ensure your summary accurately represents the writer’s article and that your evaluation is thorough and fair. Adhere to the guidelines and recommendations provided by your instructor or the journal. If you need to add citations and reference page – don’t forget to include those. You can refer to one of our tools like acm reference generator to help you do everything correctly

In summary, writing an article review is a meticulous process that requires a detailed summary of the writer’s piece, a comprehensive evaluation of its main points, and a deep engagement with the field. By preparing adequately, consulting experts, and conducting thorough research, you can write a critique that is insightful, informed, and impactful.

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Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
Qualitative versus quantitative research
Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

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How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

Search for relevant literature
Evaluate sources
Identify themes, debates, and gaps
Outline the structure
Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

Quick Run-through
Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

Your university’s library catalogue
Google Scholar
Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
EconLit (economics)
Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

What question or problem is the author addressing?
What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
What are the key theories, models, and methods?
Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
What are the results and conclusions of the study?
How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

Most research has focused on young women.
There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Sampling methods
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Likert scales
Reproducibility

Statistics

Null hypothesis
Statistical power
Probability distribution
Effect size
Poisson distribution

Research bias

Optimism bias
Cognitive bias
Implicit bias
Hawthorne effect
Anchoring bias
Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An annotated bibliography is a list of source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a paper .

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Journal Article Review in APA Style

Journal article reviews refer to the appraisal of potencies and limitations of an article’s opinion and subject matter. The article reviews offer the readers with an explanation, investigation and clarification to evaluate the importance of the article. A journal article review usually follows the APA style, which is in itself an exceptional mode of writing. Writing a journal article review in APA style requires a thorough reading of an article and then present our personal opinions on its subject matter.

In order to write a journal article review in APA style, one must necessarily conform to the detailed guidelines of APA style of writing. As such, a few tips for writing a journal article review in APA style have been provided in details below.

Tips for Writing Journal Article Review in APA Style

Getting started.

Read the complete article. Most journal articles use highly complicated and difficult language and wording. Thus, it is suggested to read the article thoroughly several times to understand it perfectly. Select a statement that effectively conveys the main idea of your review. Present the ideas in a rational order, keeping in mind that all opinions must sustain the main idea.

Start with a header with citation

Journal article reviews start with a header, including citation of the sources being reviewed. This citation is mentioned at the top of the review, following the APA style (refer to the APA style manual for more information). We will need the author’s name for the article, title of the article, journal of the published article, volume and issue number, publication date, and page numbers for the article.

Write a summary

The introductory paragraph of the review should provide a brief summary of the article, strictly limiting it to one to three paragraphs depending on the article length. The summary should discuss only the most imperative details about the article, like the author’s intention in writing the article, how the study was conducted, how the article relates to other work on the same subject, the results and other relevant information from the article.

Body of the review

The succeeding paragraphs of the review should present your ideas and opinions on the article. Discuss the significance and suggestion of the results of the study. The body of the article review should be limited to one to two paragraphs, including your understanding of the article, quotations from the article demonstrating your main ideas, discussing the article’s limitations and how to overcome them.

Concluding the review

The concluding paragraphs of the review should provide your personal appraisal of the journal article. Discuss whether the article is well-written or not, whether any information is missing, or if further research is necessary on the subject. Also, write a paragraph on how the author could develop the study results, what the information means on a large scale, how further investigation can develop the subject matter, and how the knowledge of this field can be extended further.

Citation and Revision

In-text citation of direct quotes or paraphrases from the article can be done using the author’s name, year of publication and page numbers (refer to the APA-style manual for citation guidelines). After finishing the writing of journal article review in APA style, it would be advised to re-visit the review after a few days and then re-read it altogether. By doing this, you will be able to view the review with a new perspective and may detect mistakes that were previously left undetected.

The above mentioned tips will help and guide you for writing a journal article review in APA style. However, while writing a journal article review, remember that you are undertaking more than just a narrative review. Thus, the article review should not merely focus on discussing what the article is about, but should reveal your personal ideas and opinions on the article.

Writing literature reviews in apa format.

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Preparing tables for research papers

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Peer review templates, expert examples and free training courses

Joanna Wilkinson

Learning how to write a constructive peer review is an essential step in helping to safeguard the quality and integrity of published literature. Read on for resources that will get you on the right track, including peer review templates, example reports and the Web of Science™ Academy: our free, online course that teaches you the core competencies of peer review through practical experience ( try it today ).

How to write a peer review

Understanding the principles, forms and functions of peer review will enable you to write solid, actionable review reports. It will form the basis for a comprehensive and well-structured review, and help you comment on the quality, rigor and significance of the research paper. It will also help you identify potential breaches of normal ethical practice.

This may sound daunting but it doesn’t need to be. There are plenty of peer review templates, resources and experts out there to help you, including:

Peer review training courses and in-person workshops

Peer review templates ( found in our Web of Science Academy )
Expert examples of peer review reports
Co-reviewing (sharing the task of peer reviewing with a senior researcher)

Other peer review resources, blogs, and guidelines

We’ll go through each one of these in turn below, but first: a quick word on why learning peer review is so important.

Why learn to peer review?

Peer reviewers and editors are gatekeepers of the research literature used to document and communicate human discovery. Reviewers, therefore, need a sound understanding of their role and obligations to ensure the integrity of this process. This also helps them maintain quality research, and to help protect the public from flawed and misleading research findings.

Learning to peer review is also an important step in improving your own professional development.

You’ll become a better writer and a more successful published author in learning to review. It gives you a critical vantage point and you’ll begin to understand what editors are looking for. It will also help you keep abreast of new research and best-practice methods in your field.

We strongly encourage you to learn the core concepts of peer review by joining a course or workshop. You can attend in-person workshops to learn from and network with experienced reviewers and editors. As an example, Sense about Science offers peer review workshops every year. To learn more about what might be in store at one of these, researcher Laura Chatland shares her experience at one of the workshops in London.

There are also plenty of free, online courses available, including courses in the Web of Science Academy such as ‘Reviewing in the Sciences’, ‘Reviewing in the Humanities’ and ‘An introduction to peer review’

The Web of Science Academy also supports co-reviewing with a mentor to teach peer review through practical experience. You learn by writing reviews of preprints, published papers, or even ‘real’ unpublished manuscripts with guidance from your mentor. You can work with one of our community mentors or your own PhD supervisor or postdoc advisor, or even a senior colleague in your department.

Go to the Web of Science Academy

Peer review templates

Peer review templates are helpful to use as you work your way through a manuscript. As part of our free Web of Science Academy courses, you’ll gain exclusive access to comprehensive guidelines and a peer review report. It offers points to consider for all aspects of the manuscript, including the abstract, methods and results sections. It also teaches you how to structure your review and will get you thinking about the overall strengths and impact of the paper at hand.

Web of Science Academy template (requires joining one of the free courses)
PLoS’s review template
Wiley’s peer review guide (not a template as such, but a thorough guide with questions to consider in the first and second reading of the manuscript)

Beyond following a template, it’s worth asking your editor or checking the journal’s peer review management system. That way, you’ll learn whether you need to follow a formal or specific peer review structure for that particular journal. If no such formal approach exists, try asking the editor for examples of other reviews performed for the journal. This will give you a solid understanding of what they expect from you.

Peer review examples

Understand what a constructive peer review looks like by learning from the experts.

Here’s a sample of pre and post-publication peer reviews displayed on Web of Science publication records to help guide you through your first few reviews. Some of these are transparent peer reviews , which means the entire process is open and visible — from initial review and response through to revision and final publication decision. You may wish to scroll to the bottom of these pages so you can first read the initial reviews, and make your way up the page to read the editor and author’s responses.

Pre-publication peer review: Patterns and mechanisms in instances of endosymbiont-induced parthenogenesis
Pre-publication peer review: Can Ciprofloxacin be Used for Precision Treatment of Gonorrhea in Public STD Clinics? Assessment of Ciprofloxacin Susceptibility and an Opportunity for Point-of-Care Testing
Transparent peer review: Towards a standard model of musical improvisation
Transparent peer review: Complex mosaic of sexual dichromatism and monochromatism in Pacific robins results from both gains and losses of elaborate coloration
Post-publication peer review: Brain state monitoring for the future prediction of migraine attacks
Web of Science Academy peer review: Students’ Perception on Training in Writing Research Article for Publication

F1000 has also put together a nice list of expert reviewer comments pertaining to the various aspects of a review report.

Co-reviewing

Co-reviewing (sharing peer review assignments with senior researchers) is one of the best ways to learn peer review. It gives researchers a hands-on, practical understanding of the process.

In an article in The Scientist , the team at Future of Research argues that co-reviewing can be a valuable learning experience for peer review, as long as it’s done properly and with transparency. The reason there’s a need to call out how co-reviewing works is because it does have its downsides. The practice can leave early-career researchers unaware of the core concepts of peer review. This can make it hard to later join an editor’s reviewer pool if they haven’t received adequate recognition for their share of the review work. (If you are asked to write a peer review on behalf of a senior colleague or researcher, get recognition for your efforts by asking your senior colleague to verify the collaborative co-review on your Web of Science researcher profiles).

The Web of Science Academy course ‘Co-reviewing with a mentor’ is uniquely practical in this sense. You will gain experience in peer review by practicing on real papers and working with a mentor to get feedback on how their peer review can be improved. Students submit their peer review report as their course assignment and after internal evaluation receive a course certificate, an Academy graduate badge on their Web of Science researcher profile and is put in front of top editors in their field through the Reviewer Locator at Clarivate.

Here are some external peer review resources found around the web:

Peer Review Resources from Sense about Science
Peer Review: The Nuts and Bolts by Sense about Science
How to review journal manuscripts by R. M. Rosenfeld for Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery
Ethical guidelines for peer review from COPE
An Instructional Guide for Peer Reviewers of Biomedical Manuscripts by Callaham, Schriger & Cooper for Annals of Emergency Medicine (requires Flash or Adobe)
EQUATOR Network’s reporting guidelines for health researchers

And finally, we’ve written a number of blogs about handy peer review tips. Check out some of our top picks:

How to Write a Peer Review: 12 things you need to know
Want To Peer Review? Top 10 Tips To Get Noticed By Editors
Review a manuscript like a pro: 6 tips from a Web of Science Academy supervisor
How to write a structured reviewer report: 5 tips from an early-career researcher

Want to learn more? Become a master of peer review and connect with top journal editors. The Web of Science Academy – your free online hub of courses designed by expert reviewers, editors and Nobel Prize winners. Find out more today.

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How to write a review article?

In the medical sciences, the importance of review articles is rising. When clinicians want to update their knowledge and generate guidelines about a topic, they frequently use reviews as a starting point. The value of a review is associated with what has been done, what has been found and how these findings are presented. Before asking ‘how,’ the question of ‘why’ is more important when starting to write a review. The main and fundamental purpose of writing a review is to create a readable synthesis of the best resources available in the literature for an important research question or a current area of research. Although the idea of writing a review is attractive, it is important to spend time identifying the important questions. Good review methods are critical because they provide an unbiased point of view for the reader regarding the current literature. There is a consensus that a review should be written in a systematic fashion, a notion that is usually followed. In a systematic review with a focused question, the research methods must be clearly described. A ‘methodological filter’ is the best method for identifying the best working style for a research question, and this method reduces the workload when surveying the literature. An essential part of the review process is differentiating good research from bad and leaning on the results of the better studies. The ideal way to synthesize studies is to perform a meta-analysis. In conclusion, when writing a review, it is best to clearly focus on fixed ideas, to use a procedural and critical approach to the literature and to express your findings in an attractive way.

The importance of review articles in health sciences is increasing day by day. Clinicians frequently benefit from review articles to update their knowledge in their field of specialization, and use these articles as a starting point for formulating guidelines. [ 1 , 2 ] The institutions which provide financial support for further investigations resort to these reviews to reveal the need for these researches. [ 3 ] As is the case with all other researches, the value of a review article is related to what is achieved, what is found, and the way of communicating this information. A few studies have evaluated the quality of review articles. Murlow evaluated 50 review articles published in 1985, and 1986, and revealed that none of them had complied with clear-cut scientific criteria. [ 4 ] In 1996 an international group that analyzed articles, demonstrated the aspects of review articles, and meta-analyses that had not complied with scientific criteria, and elaborated QUOROM (QUality Of Reporting Of Meta-analyses) statement which focused on meta-analyses of randomized controlled studies. [ 5 ] Later on this guideline was updated, and named as PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). [ 6 ]

Review articles are divided into 2 categories as narrative, and systematic reviews. Narrative reviews are written in an easily readable format, and allow consideration of the subject matter within a large spectrum. However in a systematic review, a very detailed, and comprehensive literature surveying is performed on the selected topic. [ 7 , 8 ] Since it is a result of a more detailed literature surveying with relatively lesser involvement of author’s bias, systematic reviews are considered as gold standard articles. Systematic reviews can be diivded into qualitative, and quantitative reviews. In both of them detailed literature surveying is performed. However in quantitative reviews, study data are collected, and statistically evaluated (ie. meta-analysis). [ 8 ]

Before inquring for the method of preparation of a review article, it is more logical to investigate the motivation behind writing the review article in question. The fundamental rationale of writing a review article is to make a readable synthesis of the best literature sources on an important research inquiry or a topic. This simple definition of a review article contains the following key elements:

The question(s) to be dealt with
Methods used to find out, and select the best quality researches so as to respond to these questions.
To synthetize available, but quite different researches

For the specification of important questions to be answered, number of literature references to be consulted should be more or less determined. Discussions should be conducted with colleagues in the same area of interest, and time should be reserved for the solution of the problem(s). Though starting to write the review article promptly seems to be very alluring, the time you spend for the determination of important issues won’t be a waste of time. [ 9 ]

The PRISMA statement [ 6 ] elaborated to write a well-designed review articles contains a 27-item checklist ( Table 1 ). It will be reasonable to fulfill the requirements of these items during preparation of a review article or a meta-analysis. Thus preparation of a comprehensible article with a high-quality scientific content can be feasible.

PRISMA statement: A 27-item checklist

Contents and format

Important differences exist between systematic, and non-systematic reviews which especially arise from methodologies used in the description of the literature sources. A non-systematic review means use of articles collected for years with the recommendations of your colleagues, while systematic review is based on struggles to search for, and find the best possible researches which will respond to the questions predetermined at the start of the review.

Though a consensus has been reached about the systematic design of the review articles, studies revealed that most of them had not been written in a systematic format. McAlister et al. analyzed review articles in 6 medical journals, and disclosed that in less than one fourth of the review articles, methods of description, evaluation or synthesis of evidence had been provided, one third of them had focused on a clinical topic, and only half of them had provided quantitative data about the extend of the potential benefits. [ 10 ]

Use of proper methodologies in review articles is important in that readers assume an objective attitude towards updated information. We can confront two problems while we are using data from researches in order to answer certain questions. Firstly, we can be prejudiced during selection of research articles or these articles might be biased. To minimize this risk, methodologies used in our reviews should allow us to define, and use researches with minimal degree of bias. The second problem is that, most of the researches have been performed with small sample sizes. In statistical methods in meta-analyses, available researches are combined to increase the statistical power of the study. The problematic aspect of a non-systematic review is that our tendency to give biased responses to the questions, in other words we apt to select the studies with known or favourite results, rather than the best quality investigations among them.

As is the case with many research articles, general format of a systematic review on a single subject includes sections of Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion ( Table 2 ).

Structure of a systematic review

Preparation of the review article

Steps, and targets of constructing a good review article are listed in Table 3 . To write a good review article the items in Table 3 should be implemented step by step. [ 11 – 13 ]

Steps of a systematic review

The research question

It might be helpful to divide the research question into components. The most prevalently used format for questions related to the treatment is PICO (P - Patient, Problem or Population; I-Intervention; C-appropriate Comparisons, and O-Outcome measures) procedure. For example In female patients (P) with stress urinary incontinence, comparisons (C) between transobturator, and retropubic midurethral tension-free band surgery (I) as for patients’ satisfaction (O).

Finding Studies

In a systematic review on a focused question, methods of investigation used should be clearly specified.

Ideally, research methods, investigated databases, and key words should be described in the final report. Different databases are used dependent on the topic analyzed. In most of the clinical topics, Medline should be surveyed. However searching through Embase and CINAHL can be also appropriate.

While determining appropriate terms for surveying, PICO elements of the issue to be sought may guide the process. Since in general we are interested in more than one outcome, P, and I can be key elements. In this case we should think about synonyms of P, and I elements, and combine them with a conjunction AND.

One method which might alleviate the workload of surveying process is “methodological filter” which aims to find the best investigation method for each research question. A good example of this method can be found in PubMed interface of Medline. The Clinical Queries tool offers empirically developed filters for five different inquiries as guidelines for etiology, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis or clinical prediction.

Evaluation of the Quality of the Study

As an indispensable component of the review process is to discriminate good, and bad quality researches from each other, and the outcomes should be based on better qualified researches, as far as possible. To achieve this goal you should know the best possible evidence for each type of question The first component of the quality is its general planning/design of the study. General planning/design of a cohort study, a case series or normal study demonstrates variations.

A hierarchy of evidence for different research questions is presented in Table 4 . However this hierarchy is only a first step. After you find good quality research articles, you won’t need to read all the rest of other articles which saves you tons of time. [ 14 ]

Determination of levels of evidence based on the type of the research question

Formulating a Synthesis

Rarely all researches arrive at the same conclusion. In this case a solution should be found. However it is risky to make a decision based on the votes of absolute majority. Indeed, a well-performed large scale study, and a weakly designed one are weighed on the same scale. Therefore, ideally a meta-analysis should be performed to solve apparent differences. Ideally, first of all, one should be focused on the largest, and higher quality study, then other studies should be compared with this basic study.

Conclusions

In conclusion, during writing process of a review article, the procedures to be achieved can be indicated as follows: 1) Get rid of fixed ideas, and obsessions from your head, and view the subject from a large perspective. 2) Research articles in the literature should be approached with a methodological, and critical attitude and 3) finally data should be explained in an attractive way.

Open access
Published: 18 December 2021

Prevalence and determinants of depression among old age: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Yosef Zenebe ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0138-6588 1 ,
Baye Akele 2 ,
Mulugeta W/Selassie 3 &
Mogesie Necho 1

Annals of General Psychiatry volume 20 , Article number: 55 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Depression is a leading cause of disability worldwide and is a major contributor to the overall global burden of disease. It is also one of the most common geriatric psychiatric disorders and a major risk factor for disability and mortality in elderly patients. Even though depression is a common mental health problem in the elderly population, it is undiagnosed in half of the cases. Several studies showed different and inconsistent prevalence rates in the world. Hence, this study aimed to fill the above gap by producing an average prevalence of depression and associated factors in old age.

This study aims to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to provide a precise estimate of the prevalence of depression and its determinants among old age.

A comprehensive search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of sciences, Google Scholar, and Psych-info from database inception to January 2020. Moreover, the reference list of selected articles was looked at manually to have further eligible articles. The random-effects model was employed during the analysis. Stata-11 was used to determine the average prevalence of depression among old age. A sub-group analysis and sensitivity analysis were also run. A graphical inspection of the funnel plots and Egger’s publication bias plot test were checked for the occurrence of publication bias.

A search of the electronic and manual system resulted in 1263 articles. Nevertheless, after the huge screening, 42 relevant studies were identified, including, for this meta-analysis, n = 57,486 elderly populations. The average expected prevalence of depression among old age was 31.74% (95% CI 27.90, 35.59). In the sub-group analysis, the pooled prevalence was higher among developing countries; 40.78% than developed countries; 17.05%), studies utilized Geriatrics Depression Scale-30(GDS-30); 40.60% than studies that used GMS; 18.85%, study instrument, and studies having a lower sample size (40.12%) than studies with the higher sample; 20.19%.

A high prevalence rate of depression among the old population in the world was unraveled. This study can be considered as an early warning and advised health professionals, health policymakers, and other pertinent stakeholders to take effective control measures and periodic care for the elderly population.

The elderly people are matured and experienced persons of any community. Their experience, wisdom, and foresight can be useful for development and progress; they are a valuable asset for any nation [ 1 ]. Despite their invaluable wisdom and insight, the aging of the world's population is causing extensive economic and social consequences globally [ 2 ]. The aging population has increased rapidly over the last decades owing to two significant factors, namely, the reduction in mortality and fertility rates and improved quality of life, leading to an increase in life expectancy worldwide [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Globally, the number and proportion of people aged 60 years and older in the population are increasing. In 2019, the number of people aged 60 years and older was 1 billion. This number will increase to 1.4 billion by 2030 and 2.1 billion by 2050. By 2050, 80% of all older people will live in low- and middle-income countries [ 6 , 7 , 8 ].

A high geriatric population leads to high geriatric psychiatric problems [ 9 ]. The elderly, in general, face various challenges that are associated with physical and psychological changes commonly associated with the aging process [ 10 ]. The incidence of mental health problems is expected to increase among adults in general as well as in older populations in particular [ 11 ].

Depression is a leading cause of disability worldwide and is a major contributor to the overall global burden of disease [ 12 ]. It is also one of the most common geriatric psychiatric disorders [ 13 ] and a major risk factor for disability and mortality in older patients [ 14 ]. Even though depression is a common mental health problem in the elderly population, it is undiagnosed in about 50% of cases. The estimates for the prevalence of depression in the aging differ greatly [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. WHO estimated that the global depressive disorder among older adults ranged between 10 and 20% [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Among all mentally ill individuals, 40% were diagnosed to have a depressive disorder [ 22 ]. People with depressive disorder have a 40% greater chance of premature death than their counterparts [ 20 ].

Most of the time, the clinical picture of depression in old age is masked by memory difficulties with distress and anxiety symptoms; however, these problems are secondary to depression [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Numerous community-based studies showed that older adults experienced depression-related complications [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Depression amplifies the functional disabilities caused by physical illness, interferes with treatment and rehabilitation, and further contributes to a decline in the physical functioning of a person [ 31 , 32 ]. It also has an economic impact on older adults due to its significant contribution to the rise of direct annual livelihood costs [ 33 ]. Hence, improvement of mental health among people in late life is considered to be medically urgent to prevent an increase in suicides in a progressively aging society.

Although real causes of depression remain not clear, psychological, social, and biological processes are thought to determine the etiology of depression and comorbid psychiatric diagnoses (e.g., anxiety and various personality disorders) [ 34 ]. Social scientists, postulating the psychosocial theory, posited that depression could be caused by a lack of interpersonal and communication skills, social support, and coping mechanisms [ 35 ]. Old biological theories stated depression is caused by a lack of monoamines in the brain. However, recent theories underscore the role of Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the pathogenesis of depression [ 36 ]. In general, depression in the elderly is the result of a complex interaction of social, psychological, and biological factors [ 37 , 38 ].

Different factors associated with geriatric depression, such as female sex [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ], increasing age [ 37 , 40 , 41 , 44 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ], being single or divorced [ 42 ], religion [ 50 ], lower educational attainment [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 44 ], unemployment [ 38 , 42 ], low income [ 37 , 39 , 40 , 42 , 44 , 46 , 51 , 52 ], low self-esteem [ 53 ], childhood traumatic experiences [ 54 ], loneliness or living alone [ 40 , 50 , 51 , 55 ], social deprivation [ 45 , 46 , 56 ], bereavement [ 39 , 43 , 57 , 58 ], presence of chronic illness or poor health status [ 37 , 39 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 49 , 50 , 56 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 ], lack of health insurance [ 42 ], smoking habit [ 48 ], cognitive impairment [ 39 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 61 ] and a history of depression [ 43 , 44 , 47 ].

Compared with other health services, evidence of depressive disorders tends to be relatively poor. Therefore, the level of its burden among older adults is not well addressed in the world. Lack of adequate evidence about depression in older adults may be a factor that contributes to poor or inconsistent mental health care at the community level [ 21 , 65 ]. In addition to the poor setting for mental health care services, there are no up-to-date systematic reviews and meta-analysis studies conducted that could vividly show the global prevalence and determinants of depression among old age. Several studies also revealed different and inconsistent prevalence rates in the world. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to summarize the existing evidence on the prevalence of depression among old age and to formulate possible suggestions for clinicians, the research community, and policymakers.

Search process

A systematic search of the literature in September 2020 using both international [PubMed, Scopus, Web of sciences, Google Scholar, Psych-info, and national scientific databases] was conducted to identify English language studies, published between August 1994 and January 2020, that examined the prevalence of depression among old age. We searched English keywords of “epidemiology” OR “prevalence” OR “magnitude” OR “incidence” AND “factor” OR “associated factor” OR “risk” OR “risk factor” OR “determinant”, “depression”, “depressive disorder” OR “major depressive disorder” AND “old age” OR “elderly” OR “geriatrics”, “community”, “hospital” and “global”. In addition, the reference lists of the studies were manually checked to obtain further studies.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Original quantitative studies that examined the prevalence and determinants of depression among old age were included. The included studies were randomized controlled trials, cohort, case–control, cross-sectional, articles written in English, full-text articles, and published between August 1994 and January 2020. The exclusion criteria were studies which published as review articles, qualitative studies, brief reports, letter to the editor or editorial comments, working papers articles published in a language other than English, researches conducted in non-human subjects, and studies having duplicate data with other studies. The literature search was conducted based on the PRISMA (preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses) guideline [ 66 ]. All articles were independently reviewed by four researchers against inclusion and exclusion criteria. Any initial disagreement was resolved.

Data extraction and appraisal of study quality

After eliminating the duplicates, four investigators reviewed study titles and abstracts for eligibility. If at least one of them considered an article as potentially eligible, the full texts were assessed by the same reviewers. Any disagreements were resolved by discussion. Detailed information on the country, data source, study population, and results were extracted from each included study into a standardized spreadsheet by two authors and checked by the other two authors. EndNote X7.3.1 was used to organize the identified articles. Two investigators independently assessed the risk of bias of each of the included studies. The quality of studies included in the final analysis was evaluated with the Newcastle Ottawa quality assessment checklist [ 67 ]. The components of the quality assessment checklist include study participants and setting, research design, recruitment strategy, response rate, representativeness of the sample, the convention of valid measurement, reliability of measurement, and appropriate statistical analyses.

Statistical analysis

The data were analyzed with STATA 12.0 [ 68 ]. Prevalence standard errors were calculated using the standard formula for proportions: sqrt [ p *(1 – p )/ n ]; The heterogeneity across the studies in proportion of depression in the elderly population and the contribution of studies attributing to total heterogeneity was estimated by the I 2 statistic. The point estimates from each study were combined using a random-effects meta-analysis model to obtain the overall estimate with the DerSimonian–Laird method. Sources of heterogeneity across studies were examined with meta-regression. Publication bias and small study effects were assessed with the Egger test.

Search result

The search procedure primarily obtained n = 1263 results, which after reading the title and abstract, full-text, and the application of the inclusion and exclusion criteria were reduced to n = 42. The selection process is shown in Fig. 1 .

Articles search flow diagram

Characteristics of the study subjects

A total of 42 studies [ 38 , 42 , 50 , 57 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 ] studied our outcome of interest; A total sample size of fifty-seven thousand four hundred and eighty-six (57,486) elderly populations were included in the present study. The geographical province of studies was assessed. We found: Six studies in India [ 72 , 86 , 94 , 95 , 98 , 102 ], five studies in China [ 50 , 77 , 84 , 89 ], three studies in Turkey [ 71 , 82 , 105 ], three studies in Nepal [ 76 , 90 , 97 ], three studies in Thailand [ 70 , 75 , 83 ], two studies in the USA [ 91 , 100 ], two studies in Australia [ 57 , 99 ], two studies in Malaysia [ 42 , 96 ], two studies in Ethiopia [ 81 , 93 ], one study in German [ 103 ], one study in the UK [ 104 ], one study in Norway [ 85 ], one study in Italy [ 79 ], one study in Japan [ 87 ], one study in Mexico [ 78 ], one study in Brazil [ 92 ], one study in Finland [ 74 ], one study in Singapore [ 101 ], one study in Saudi Arabia [ 69 ], one study in the United Arab Emirates [ 80 ], one study in Ghana [ 88 ], one study in Sudan [ 73 ] and one study in Egypt [ 38 ]. Most of the studies in the present analysis were cross-sectional [ 38 , 42 , 50 , 57 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 81 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 92 , 93 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 105 ] and four studies were Cohort [ 85 , 94 , 99 , 104 ].

Sixteen studies [ 70 , 73 , 74 , 81 , 86 , 88 , 90 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 ] used Geriatric Depression Scale-15 (GDS-15), 12 studies [ 38 , 69 , 71 , 72 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 82 , 84 , 89 , 96 ] used Geriatric Depression Scale-30 (GDS-30), four studies [ 50 , 80 , 83 , 101 ] used Geriatric Mental State Schedule (GMS) and ten studies [ 42 , 57 , 78 , 79 , 85 , 87 , 91 , 95 , 99 , 100 ] used others (ICD-10, CIDI, DASS-21, KICA, CES-D, Euro-D, DSM-III, MCS and HADS) tools to measure depression in old age (Table 1 ).

Quality of included studies

The quality of 42 studies [ 38 , 42 , 50 , 57 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 ] was assessed with the modified Newcastle Ottawa quality assessment scale. This scale divides the total quality score into 3 ranges; a score of 7 to 10 as very good/good, a score of 5 to 6 as having satisfactory quality, and a quality score less than 5 as unsatisfactory. The majority (28 from the 42 studies) had scored good quality, nine had a satisfactory quality, and four of the studies had unsatisfactory quality .

The prevalence of depression among old age

The reported prevalence of elderly depression among 42 studies [ 38 , 42 , 50 , 57 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 ] included in this study ranges from 7.7% in a study from Malaysia and Australia [ 57 , 96 ] to 81.1% in India [ 72 ]. The average prevalence of depression among old age using the random effect model was found to be 31.74% (95% CI 27.90, 35.59). This average prevalence of depression was with the heterogeneity of ( I 2 = 100%, p value = 0.000) from the difference between the 42 studies (Fig. 2 ).

Forest plot for the prevalence of depression

Subgroup analysis of the prevalence of depression among old age

A subgroup analysis was done considering the economic status of countries, the study instrument and the sample size of each study. The cumulative prevalence of depression in elderly population among developing countries; 40.78% [ 38 , 42 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 75 , 76 , 78 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 86 , 88 , 90 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 101 , 102 , 105 ] was higher than the prevalence in developed countries; 17.05% [ 50 , 57 , 74 , 77 , 79 , 80 , 84 , 85 , 87 , 89 , 91 , 99 , 100 , 103 , 104 ] (Fig. 3 ). The average prevalence of depression was 40.60% in studies that used GDS-30 [ 38 , 69 , 71 , 72 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 82 , 84 , 89 , 96 ] which is higher than the prevalence in studies that utilized GDS-15;35.72% [ 70 , 73 , 74 , 81 , 86 , 88 , 90 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 ], GMS;18.85% [ 50 , 80 , 83 , 101 ] and other tools;19.91% [ 42 , 57 , 78 , 79 , 85 , 87 , 91 , 95 , 99 , 100 ] (Fig. 4 ). Moreover, studies which had a sample size of below 450 [ 38 , 42 , 57 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 75 , 76 , 79 , 81 , 86 , 88 , 90 , 92 , 94 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 102 , 104 ] provided higher prevalence of depression; 40.12% than those who had a sample size ranges from 450 to 999 [ 74 , 80 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 91 , 93 , 95 , 100 , 105 ]; 25.38% and above 1000 [ 50 , 69 , 74 , 77 , 78 , 83 , 87 , 89 , 101 , 103 ]; 20.19% (Fig. 5 ).

Sub-group analysis of depression based on economic status of countries

Sub-group analysis of depression based on study instruments

Sub-group analysis of depression based on sample size of studies

Sensitivity analysis

The sensitivity analysis was performed to identify whether one or more of the 42 studies had out-weighted the average prevalence of depression among old age. However, the result showed that there was no single influential study, since the 95% CI interval result was obtained when each of the 42 studies was excluded at a time (Fig. 6 ).

Sensitivity analysis for the prevalence of depression among old age

Publication bias

There was no significant publication bias detected and Egger's test p value was ( p = 0.644) showing the absence of publication bias for the prevalence of depression among old age. This was also supported by asymmetrical distribution on the funnel plot for a Logit event rate of prevalence of depression among old age against its standard error (Fig. 7 ).

Funnel plot for publication bias for depression

Factors associated with depression among old age

Among 42 studies [ 38 , 42 , 50 , 57 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 ] included in the present meta-analysis, only 32 [ 38 , 42 , 50 , 57 , 69 , 72 , 73 , 75 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 83 , 84 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 ] reported about the associated factors for depression among old age. Our qualitative synthesis for the sociodemographic factors associated with depression in elderly populations showed that female gender [ 38 , 69 , 72 , 75 , 80 , 86 , 89 , 93 , 98 , 102 , 105 ], age older than 75 years [ 38 , 69 , 101 , 102 ], being single, divorced or widowed [ 38 , 42 , 69 , 80 , 81 , 87 , 89 , 98 , 105 ], being unemployed [ 69 , 86 , 96 , 105 ], retired [ 95 ], no educational background [ 75 , 81 , 86 , 89 , 90 , 97 , 102 ] OR low level of education [ 69 , 81 , 84 , 91 , 92 , 105 ], low level of income [ 69 , 72 , 78 , 80 , 94 , 95 , 105 ], substance use [ 75 , 81 , 103 ], poverty [ 95 , 102 ], cognitive impairment [ 81 , 103 ], presence of physical illness, such as diabetes, heart diseases, stroke and head injury [ 42 , 50 , 57 , 72 , 77 , 81 , 83 , 84 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 95 , 97 , 106 ], living alone [ 88 , 102 , 104 ], disturbed sleep [ 77 , 89 ], lack of social support [ 73 , 77 , 87 ], dependent totally for the activities of daily living [ 50 , 79 , 91 , 92 , 97 , 102 , 103 ], living with family [ 42 , 93 ], history of a serious life events, such as death in family members, conflict in family, chronic illness in family members and those who had 3 or more serious life events [ 72 , 83 , 96 ], poor daily physical exercise [ 89 ] and exposure to verbal and/or physical abuse were strongly and positively associated with depression [ 90 ] (Table 2 ).

As to the researcher’s knowledge, this review and meta-analysis on the prevalence and determinants of depression among old age are the first of their kind in the world. Therefore, the knowledge generated from this meta-analysis on the pooled prevalence and associated factors for depression among old age could be important evidence to different stakeholders aiming to plan policy in the area. The average prevalence of depression among old age using the random effect model was found to be 31.74%. A subgroup analysis was done considering the economic status of countries, the study instrument, and the sample size of each study.

In the present systematic review and meta-analysis, the existing available information varies by the region, where the study was conducted, data collection tools used to screen depression, and the sample size assimilated in the study. Sixty-two percent ( n = 26) of the studies were found in developing countries. About 38% ( n = 16) of the incorporated studies utilized GDS-15 to screen depression, around 28% ( n = 12) studies used GDS-30 to screen depression, ten percent ( n = 4) studies used GMS to screen depression, whereas the rest utilized other tools. More than half ( n = 22) of the included studies utilized a sample size of below 450.

The result of this meta-analysis revealed that depression in the elderly populations in the world was high (31.74%). This pooled prevalence of depression among old age in the world (31.74%; 95% CI 27.90 to 35.59%) was higher than a global systematic review and meta-analysis study on 95,073 elderly populations aged > 75 years and 24 articles in which a pooled prevalence of depression was 17.1% (95% CI 9.7 to 26.1%) [ 107 ], a global systematic review and meta-analysis study on 41 344 outpatients and 83 articles in which a pooled prevalence of depression was 27.0% (95% CI: 24.0% to 29.0%) [ 108 ], WHO reports on mental health of older adults over 60 years old with 7% prevalence of depression in the general older population [ 106 ], a Brazilian systematic review and meta-analysis study on 15,491 community-dwelling elderly people average age 66.5 to 84.0 years and 17 articles with a pooled prevalence rates of 7.0% for major depression, 26.0% for CSDS (clinically significant depressive symptoms), and 3.3% for dysthymia [ 109 ] and an Iranian meta-analysis study on 3948 individuals aged 50 to 90 years and 13 articles with a pooled prevalence of severe depression was 8.2% (95% CI 4.14 to 6.3%) [ 110 ]. The reason for such a high prevalence of depression in the globe would be due to the difference in sample size, study subjects, the severity of depression, study area, study instruments, and the means of administration of the tools employed in the studies [ 111 ].

In contrast to our current systematic review and meta-analysis study, the pooled prevalence of depression was lower than a Chinese Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies on 36,791 subjects and 46 articles with a pooled prevalence of depression was 38.6% (95% CI 31.5–46.3%) [ 112 ], and an Indian systematic review and meta-analysis study on 22,005 study subjects aged 60 years and above, and 51 articles with a pooled prevalence of depression was 34.4% (95% CI 29.3 to 39.6) [ 113 ]. The reason for the discrepancy might be due to the wide coverage of the study and the higher sample size utilized in the present study. Furthermore, differences could be due to the poor health care coverage and significant population makes a destitute life both in China and India. In addition, both China and India have a rapidly aging population. Old age causes enforced retirement which may lead to marginalizing older people. Elders are regarded as incompetent and less valuable by potential employers. This attitude serves as a social stratification between the young and old and can prevent older men and women from fully participating in social, political, economic, cultural, spiritual, civic, and other activities [ 114 , 115 , 116 ].

A significant regional variation on the pooled prevalence of depression in the elder population was observed in this review and meta-analysis study. The aggregate prevalence of depression in elderly population among developing countries; 40.78% [ 38 , 42 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 75 , 76 , 78 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 86 , 88 , 90 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 101 , 102 , 105 ] was higher than the prevalence in developed countries; 17.05% [ 50 , 57 , 74 , 77 , 79 , 80 , 84 , 85 , 87 , 89 , 91 , 99 , 100 , 103 , 104 ]. The huge variation might be due to absolute poverty, economic reform programs, limited public health services, civil unrest, and sex inequality are very common in developing countries [ 117 ].

Likewise, the greater pooled prevalence of depression in elderly population was observed in studies using a sample size below 450 study subjects (40.12%) [ 38 , 42 , 57 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 75 , 76 , 79 , 81 , 86 , 88 , 90 , 92 , 94 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 102 , 104 ] than the pooled prevalence of depression in elders that used a sample size of 450–999 (25.38%) [ 74 , 80 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 91 , 93 , 95 , 100 , 105 ], and above 1000 (20.19%) [ 50 , 69 , 74 , 77 , 78 , 83 , 87 , 89 , 101 , 103 ]. The reason could be a smaller sample size increases the probability of a standard error thus providing a less precise and reliable result with weak power.

Regarding the associated factors; being female, age older than 75 years, being single, divorced or widowed, being unemployed, retired, no educational background, low level of education, low level of income, lack of social support, living with family, current smoker, presence of physical illness, such as diabetes, heart diseases, stroke, and head injury, poor sleep quality, physical immobility and a history of serious life events, such as a death in family members, conflict in the family, chronic illness in family members and those who had 3 or more serious life events were found to have a strong and positive association with depression among old age.

Difference between included studies in the meta-analysis

This meta-analysis study was obtained to have a high degree of heterogeneity between the studies incorporated in pooling the prevalence of depression in the elderly population of the world. The analysis of subgroups for detection of sources of heterogeneity was done and the economic status of the country, where the study was done, data collection instruments, and sample size were identified to contribute to the existing variation between the studies incorporated in the analysis. Besides, a sensitivity analysis was performed using the random-effects model to identify the effect of individual studies on the pooled estimate. No significant changes in the pooled prevalence were found on the removal of a single study.

Limitations should be considered when interpreting the results of this study. Screening tools cannot take the place of a comprehensive clinical interview for confirmatory diagnosis of depression. Nevertheless, it is a useful tool for public health programs. Screening provides optimum results when linked with confirmation by mental health experts, treatment, and follow-up. As this meta-analysis included studies done using screening tools, a further meta-analysis done with diagnostic tools will help to assess the true burden of depression and to determine the need for pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions. Furthermore, because of the lack of access to the full text of some studies, the researchers failed to include these research findings.

This review and meta-analysis study obtained a pooled prevalence of depression in the elderly population in the world to be very high, 31.74% (95% CI 27.90, 35.59). This pooled effect size of depression in the elderly population in the world obtained is very important as it showed aggregated evidence of the burden of depression in the targeted population. Since the high prevalence of depression among the old population in the world, this study can be considered as an early warning and advice to health professionals, health policymakers, and other pertinent stakeholders to take effective control measures and periodic assessment for the elderly population.

Availability of data and materials

The data sets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Activities of daily living

Adjusted odds ratio

Community-dwelling elderly people

Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale

Confidence interval

Composite International Diagnostic Interview Short Form

Clinically significant depressive symptoms

Cross-sectional

Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Elderly medical inpatients

Geriatrics depression

Geriatric Depression Scale

Geriatric Mental State Schedule

Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale

Kimberley Indigenous Cognitive Assessment of Depression

Mental Component Summary

Not reported

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis

United Kingdom

United States of America

World Health Organization

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YZ designed the study. YZ, BA, MW, and MN completed the data collection, analysis, and interpretation. MN drafted the article. YZ and BA revised the article. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Zenebe, Y., Akele, B., W/Selassie, M. et al. Prevalence and determinants of depression among old age: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Gen Psychiatry 20 , 55 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-021-00375-x

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The use and impact of surveillance-based technology initiatives in inpatient and acute mental health settings: A systematic review

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Background: The use of surveillance technologies is becoming increasingly common in inpatient mental health settings, commonly justified as efforts to improve safety and cost-effectiveness. However, the use of these technologies has been questioned in light of limited research conducted and the sensitivities, ethical concerns and potential harms of surveillance. This systematic review aims to: 1) map how surveillance technologies have been employed in inpatient mental health settings, 2) identify any best practice guidance, 3) explore how they are experienced by patients, staff and carers, and 4) examine evidence regarding their impact. Methods: We searched five academic databases (Embase, MEDLINE, PsycInfo, PubMed and Scopus), one grey literature database (HMIC) and two pre-print servers (medRxiv and PsyArXiv) to identify relevant papers published up to 18/09/2023. We also conducted backwards and forwards citation tracking and contacted experts to identify relevant literature. Quality was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Data were synthesised using a narrative approach. Results: A total of 27 studies were identified as meeting the inclusion criteria. Included studies reported on CCTV/video monitoring (n = 13), Vision-Based Patient Monitoring and Management (VBPMM) (n = 6), Body Worn Cameras (BWCs) (n = 4), GPS electronic monitoring (n = 2) and wearable sensors (n = 2). Twelve papers (44.4%) were rated as low quality, five (18.5%) medium quality, and ten (37.0%) high quality. Five studies (18.5%) declared a conflict of interest. We identified minimal best practice guidance. Qualitative findings indicate that patient, staff and carer perceptions and experiences of surveillance technologies are mixed and complex. Quantitative findings regarding the impact of surveillance on outcomes such as self-harm, violence, aggression, care quality and cost-effectiveness were inconsistent or weak. Discussion: There is currently insufficient evidence to suggest that surveillance technologies in inpatient mental health settings are achieving the outcomes they are employed to achieve, such as improving safety and reducing costs. The studies were generally of low methodological quality, lacked lived experience involvement, and a substantial proportion (18.5%) declared conflicts of interest. Further independent coproduced research is needed to more comprehensively evaluate the impact of surveillance technologies in inpatient settings, including harms and benefits. If surveillance technologies are to be implemented, it will be important to engage all key stakeholders in the development of policies, procedures and best practice guidance to regulate their use, with a particular emphasis on prioritising the perspectives of patients.

Competing Interest Statement

AS and UF have undertaken and published research on BWCs. We have received no financial support from BWC or any other surveillance technology companies. All other authors declare no competing interests.

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This study is funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Policy Research Programme (grant no. PR-PRU-0916-22003). The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. ARG was supported by the Ramon y Cajal programme (RYC2022-038556-I), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.

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I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

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The template data extraction form is available in Supplementary 1. MMAT quality appraisal ratings for each included study are available in Supplementary 2. All data used is publicly available in the published papers included in this review.

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Critics say Beyoncé's new album 'Cowboy Carter' is a virtuosic riff on the country genre — but it could have used some editing

Beyoncé released her eighth studio album "Cowboy Carter" on Friday.
She described the country-inspired project as a "continuation of 'Renaissance'" and "an experience."
Critics are raving about the album's ambitious scope, especially on "Ya Ya" and "II Most Wanted."

Beyoncé has once again changed the game with a digital drop, unveiling her eighth studio album, "Cowboy Carter," on Friday to overwhelming praise.

The second installment in a three-act series that launched with " Renaissance " in 2022 draws heavily from Southern iconography, folk, blues, soul, and Americana influences. The tracklist boasts features from Nashville legends like Willie Nelson, Dolly Parton, and Linda Martell .

"I hope that you can hear my heart and soul, and all the love and passion that I poured into every detail and every sound," Beyoncé wrote on Instagram . "I hope this music is an experience, creating another journey where you can close your eyes, start from the beginning and never stop."

Reviews for "Cowboy Carter" are rolling in. Here's what critics are saying so far.

The sonic palette of "Cowboy Carter" is more diverse than its title may suggest.

"Country, gospel, soul, blues, R&B, pop, psychedelic rock, and more all find themselves as key members of Beyoncé's country. Her country is more dimensional and multifaceted than Nashville could ever dream of, because Black folks in the country had to imagine and conjure worlds that did not even exist during enslavement and sharecropping in the heavily segregated Jim Crow South." — Taylor Crumpton, The Daily Beast

"Across 27 tracks, almost all with compellingly muscular melodies, she whips and neigh-neighs through every conceivable form of classic and modern country, roping in elements of opera, rock and hip-hop at her commanding, virtuosic whim." — Helen Brown, The Independent

"It's a deep stylistic smorgasbord that gets scattershot in the final third of the album's 27 tracks (several of them interludes) with trap beats and fiddles vying for the front row." — Melissa Ruggieri, USA Today

"With this endlessly entertaining project, she gets to be a warrior of female and Black pride and a sweetheart of the radio. Because being Beyoncé means never having to pretend to be just one thing." — Chris Willman, Variety

"So what kind of album is it? It's a journey." — Shane O'Neill, The Washington Post

The album's length works against it, though it doesn't ruin the overall effect.

"It could have used some editing. For its five-year gestation, nearly 80-minute runtime, and history-making ambitions, 'Cowboy Carter' still feels somewhat undercooked." — Chris Kelly, The Washington Post

"At 1 hour 18 minutes long, it's a lot to take in one sitting and being in the saddle does start to chafe, but there's enough gold here to keep the stars and stripes aloft." — Alan Pedder, The Line of Best Fit

"There are moments when it starts to feel less like a coherent statement than one of those long 21st-century albums that offers listeners a selection box of tracks to pick and choose playlist additions from. Or perhaps its wild lurches into eclecticism are the point. Unwieldy as it is, it displays its author's ability to bend musical styles to her will." — Alexis Petridis, The Guardian

"Some of the time — not most, but some — 'Cowboy Carter' is boring . It's too long . There are too many ballads. There are too many sketched-out acoustic lullabies that almost function as skits.

"But even when it's boring , 'Cowboy Carter' is nowhere near bad . The whole thing is put together so meticulously." — Tom Breihan, Stereogum

Despite its ambitious scope, the album still feels intimate. "Cowboy Carter" doubles as a political statement and a personal ode to Beyoncé's roots.

"Hitting her stride immediately with powerful curtain raiser 'Ameriican Requiem,' Beyoncé wastes no time in laying out her country credentials and pain at having them so coldly dismissed . But it's not sympathy she's after; if mainstream country can't stand her, she'll leave it choking in the sawdust as she hoedowns on regardless." — Alan Pedder, The Line of Best Fit

"Throughout it all, Beyoncé's hands are confidently and charismatically on the reins. The righteous zeal of her mission, and the giddy range of sonic adventuring, repeatedly gave me chills I haven't felt since the release of 'Lemonade.' Back then she was fighting for her marriage. Now she's fighting for a major culture shift." — Helen Brown, The Independent

"Legacies — musical ones, family ones — have been a theme of Beyoncé's music. Sometimes she's correcting artistic history and blending genres. Sometimes she's inserting her children into her art. One way or another, she's always tugging at roots." — Helena Andrews-Dyer, The Washington Post

"Beyoncé leans into the art of storytelling that is so central to country music, reflecting on authenticity, roots, legacy, and purpose—and offering a sharp contrast to the unassailable pop star veneer we typically see from the singer." — André-Naquian Wheeler, Vogue

"'Cowboy Carter' is such a grand statement of intent that it feels like it could be her ultimate say on identity and purpose. The fact that it's coming from outside her usual wheelhouse makes it even more impressive." — Neil Z. Yeung, AllMusic

"Ya Ya" is an eclectic highlight, blending Beyoncé's soulful voice with nods to Nancy Sinatra and The Beach Boys.

"What do you get if you take a sample of Nancy Sinatra's 'These Boots Are Made for Walkin,' mix it with an interpolation of the Beach Boys' 'Good Vibrations' and douse the whole concoction in the essence of Tina Turner?

"Well, you get 'Ya Ya,' of course, the best song on 'Cowboy Carter.'" — Kyle Denis, Billboard

"On the bonkers 'Ya Ya,' she tells us she's above 'petty' prejudice because she's 'a clever girl.' A boast she then backs up by spinning a sample of Nancy Sinatra's 'These Boots are Made for Walkin' into quotes from The Beach Boys' 'Good Vibrations,' staking her family's claim to life in America and calling on her ladies to 'pop it, jerk it, let loose' to a funky country soul groove." — Helen Brown, The Independent

"The best song on 'Cowboy Carter' is 'Ya Ya.' Following another snappy introduction from Martell, Beyoncé basks in an echo effect on her girlish vocals as she finger snaps and calls for a beat. You can picture the video of her high-stepping and hair-flinging as she slinks and slides around the retro groove." — Melissa Ruggieri, USA Today

"The song is sure to be a showstopper when she gets her ya-yas out on tour." — Mankaprr Conteh and Joseph Hudak, Rolling Stone

"II Most Wanted," a duet with Miley Cyrus, is another critical favorite.

"'II Most Wanted,' on the other hand, feels effortlessly top-drawer country. Miley Cyrus was born with this kind of song in her mouth, and Beyoncé more than holds her own." — Alan Pedder, The Line of Best Fit

"Beyoncé magnanimously offers Cyrus the opening verse, and the twosome trade lines, not sparring, but complementing. Sometimes they sound like a modern-day Thelma and Louise ('I'll be your shotgun rider 'til the day I die'), steeped in limitless loyalty as they reflect on aging and love. The skipping acoustic guitar is a mere backdrop to these vocal powerhouses, with Cyrus' gravel the equilibrium to Beyoncé's honey." — Melissa Ruggieri, USA Today

"It's the reimagining of 'Landslide' as a Bonnie-and-Clyde anthem, 'II Most Wanted,' that most deftly melds the past and the present. Miley Cyrus and her whiskey rasp hold their own as two pop chameleons ponder a day when they won't be young." — Chris Kelly, The Washington Post

"As two of contemporary pop's most powerful voices, they could have easily tried to out-diva each other — but the resulting track is tastefully restrained." — Shaad D'Souza, Pitchfork

Business Insider's senior music reporter rates the album a 9.3/10.

The sequel to "Renaissance" is yet another feat of vocal finesse, archival research, and most of all, sonic cohesion.

Considering Beyoncé's exceptional discography, this shouldn't be surprising. But her ability to reference her forebears, assemble a diverse team of collaborators, and still create a lucid, unified project — like a conductor leading an orchestra — will never fail to boggle my mind .

Even the interludes on "Cowboy Carter" aren't skippable. However brief, they're always essential to the album's narrative and pulse. Amid the free-flowing brilliance, standout tracks include "Bodyguard," "Jolene," "II Most Wanted," "Ya Ya," and "Tyrant."

Beyoncé's big-picture vision is also what allows her to thrive in so many musical styles. She sees connective tissue and subtle shapes where other artists do not. Beyoncé doesn't simply adapt to a genre; she unspools, analyzes, interprets, and refashions it in her own image.

There's a very good reason she declared, "This ain't a Country album. This is a 'Beyoncé' album."

"Cowboy Carter" is explicitly invested in subverting the very notion of genre, with all its constraints and contrived prestige. It argues that each artist's unique approach is more important than any label or wrapper.

It's a winning argument.

Worth listening to:

"Ameriican Requiem"

"Blackbiird"

"16 Carriages"

"Protector"

"Texas Hold 'Em"

"Bodyguard"

"Spaghettii (feat. Shaboozey)"

"Alliigator Tears"

"Just For Fun"

"II Most Wanted (feat. Miley Cyrus)"

"Levii's Jeans (feat. Post Malone)"

"Oh Louisiana"

"Desert Eagle"

"Riiverdance"

"II Hands II Heaven"

"Sweet Honey Buckin"

Background music:

"Smoke Hour with Willie Nelson"

"Smoke Hour II"

"The Linda Martell Show"

Press skip:

*Final album score based on songs per category (1 point for "Worth listening to," .5 for "Background music," 0 for "Press skip").

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Serological diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminth ( Ascaris , Trichuris and hookworm) infections: A scoping review

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] (SR); [email protected] (BL)

Affiliation Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

Sara Roose,
Fiona Vande Velde,
Johnny Vlaminck,
Peter Geldhof,
Bruno Levecke

Published: April 4, 2024
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049
Reader Comments

The World Health Organization emphasizes the importance of integrated monitoring and evaluation in neglected tropical disease (NTD) control programs. Serological assays offer a potential solution for integrated diagnosis of NTDs, particularly for those requiring mass drug administration (MDA) as primary control and elimination strategy. This scoping review aims (i) to provide an overview of assays using serum or plasma to detect infections with soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) in both humans and animals, (ii) to examine the methodologies used in this research field and (iii) to discuss advancements in serological diagnosis of STHs to guide prevention and control programs in veterinary and human medicine.

Methodology

We conducted a systematic search in the Ovid MEDLINE, Embase and Cochrane Library databases, supplemented by a Google search using predefined keywords to identify commercially available serological assays. Additionally, we performed a patent search through Espacenet.

Principal findings

Conclusions

While a substantial number of assays are employed in epidemiological research, the current state of serological diagnosis for guiding STH prevention and control programs is limited. Only two assays designed for pigs are used to inform efficient deworming practices in pig populations. Regarding human diagnosis, none of the existing assays has undergone extensive large-scale validation or integration into routine diagnostics for MDA programs.

Author summary

To further integrate the monitoring and evaluation of public health control programs against neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), the diagnostic platforms used should ideally be able to screen multiple NTDs in one and the same sample. A stepping stone for more synergies across these programs are blood-based diagnostic assays. Although they have been both developed and implemented to inform public health programs for a number of NTDs, little is known about the progress towards a blood-based diagnostic assays to follow-up on public health programs against intestinal worms. Therefore, we conducted an extensive review of blood-based tests for intestinal worm infections in humans and animals, analysing their progress from assay-development towards routine use in both public and animal health control programs. Our results indicated that, despite many tests are used in research, the use of blood-based assays for guiding control programs against intestinal worms is limited. Only two tests for pigs are currently used to inform deworming programs in pig herds. For human diagnosis, none of the current assays has been extensively evaluated or used for routine diagnosis in control programs.

Citation: Roose S, Vande Velde F, Vlaminck J, Geldhof P, Levecke B (2024) Serological diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminth ( Ascaris , Trichuris and hookworm) infections: A scoping review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 18(4): e0012049. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049

Editor: María Victoria Periago, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas, Fundación Mundo Sano, ARGENTINA

Received: October 20, 2023; Accepted: March 5, 2024; Published: April 4, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Roose et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: SR was supported through a Fundamental Research Fellowship (1154819N) of the Research Foundation Flanders ( www.fwo.be ).This review was financially supported through an international Coordination Action (G0F4320N) of the Research Foundation Flanders. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Today, the world’s most vulnerable communities still bear the heaviest burden of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), and this has prompted many NTD endemic countries worldwide to take actions to reduce the NTD-attributable disease burden [ 1 ]. Depending on the nature of the disease, the established public health interventions involve individual case management or mass drug administration (MDA) to entire communities at risk [ 2 ]. While most interventions remain disease specific, important similarities can be identified (e.g., interventions target the same communities [ 3 ] and interventions serve multiple NTDs [ 4 ]), which provides opportunities to more integrate interventions and to ultimately make better use of resources [ 2 ]. Recognizing this, the new 2021–2030 WHO roadmap for NTDs not only makes a plea for more synergies across NTD programs, it also advocates for more integration of NTDs in other well-established public health programs (e.g., HIV/AIDS and malaria) [ 2 ].

When aiming for more integrated NTD programs, the diagnostic platforms used should ideally be able to screen multiple NTDs in one and the same sample. Currently, diverse sample types (e.g., stool, urine, blood, skin scrapings, and skin biopsies) are used across various NTDs, employing diagnostic methods primarily reliant on microscopic examination [ 5 ]. These methods have several drawbacks, including insufficient performance in low prevalence settings, susceptibility to human error and a limited throughput [ 5 – 7 ]. As a response to this lack of diagnostics, the WHO has published 17 target product profiles (TPPs), which describe the minimal and ideal requirements for various diagnostic needs (e.g., simplicity, performance and price of the test) related to NTD specific use-cases [ 8 ]. For individually managed NTDs, the TPPs focus on case confirmation and detection of drug resistance, while those amendable for control through MDA focus on program decisions around starting, scaling down and stopping MDA. When further analysing the TPPs for MDA targeted NTDs (lymphatic filariasis [ 9 ], onchocerciasis [ 10 ], scabies [ 11 ], schistosomiasis [ 12 ], soil-transmitted helminthiases [ 13 ] and trachoma [ 14 ]), it becomes clear that whole blood collected by finger prick is a common sample type, and hence serological diagnostics that use blood fluids (serum or plasma) as specimen are an obvious way forward for more integrated monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of NTDs programs. Moreover, as this is also a common sample type for other infectious diseases (e.g., HIV/AIDS), it provides a unique opportunity to integrate NTDs into existing public health surveillance platforms [ 15 , 16 ]. To date, serological diagnostics are implemented only in MDA programs for lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis [ 2 , 17 , 18 ]. For both NTDs, the WHO defined prevalence thresholds that trigger program decisions to stop MDA [ 2 , 17 , 18 ]. However, for the remaining four NTDs targeted by MDA efforts, the diagnostic standards remain clinical examination or microscopy, thus hindering inclusion in integrated NTD diagnostics [ 11 – 14 ].

Therefore, this scoping review aims to investigate the landscape of serological assays for infections with soil-transmitted helminths (STHs; Ascaris , Trichuris and hookworms) focussing on identifying current gaps and key factors needed to advance their application in STH prevention and control programs. The study is guided by three research objectives. Firstly, to list the currently available assays that make use of blood fluids (serum and plasma) as primary specimens to diagnose STH infections. Given the wide prevalence of STH infections in various animal species (e.g., hookworms in dogs [ 19 ], Ascaris in pigs [ 20 ]) our research also seeks to include veterinary tests, recognizing their potential relevance and application in the field of human medicine in the future. Secondly, to examine the methodology used in this research field (e.g., sample sets used and assessments of test performance), and thirdly, to report and discuss advancements in serological diagnosis for soil-transmitted helminthiases to guide prevention and control programs in both veterinary and human medicine.

Search strategy

We opted the broader approach of a scoping review compared to a systematic review, as our aim was to determine the coverage of existing literature on our topic, to examine how research in this field was conducted and to identify knowledge gaps [ 21 ]. We did not aim to conduct any formal assessment of the quality of the studies or to critically synthesize and discuss their results. We followed the methodology for scoping reviews outlined in the JBI Reviewer’s Manual [ 22 ], and adhered to the reporting guidelines provided in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist [ 23 ] ( S1 Info ). No formal review protocol was registered.

Screening procedure and eligibility criteria

All literature retrieved by the systematic literature search was downloaded to Endnote X9 [ 24 ] by one review author (SR), and duplicates were removed. One reviewer (SR) screened the merged search results for potentially relevant records based on title and abstract. Thereafter, two reviewers (SR, PG) reviewed the full-text records for eligibility based on criteria defined during the screening process, independently. The final eligibility criteria are presented in Table 1 . The two review authors (SR, PG) categorized eligible records into two groups based on their main research focus: group 1 included key papers focusing on serological assay development, while group 2 comprised further relevant research (e.g., studies applying serological assays in epidemiological surveys). Backward and forward reference searching were conducted for all papers in group 1. Throughout the review process, a third author (BL) was responsible for facilitating discussions and reaching consensus in case of disagreement between the reviewers. During these discussions, it became apparent that we had initially overlooked a group of studies related to the use of peptides as analyte detection agents. Consequently, we conducted a supplementary systematic search in the Ovid MEDLINE database (11 October 2022) as reported in S2 Info . The additional records identified through backward and forward reference searching of the key papers, as well as the supplementary systematic search for peptide assays, went through the same selection process as the studies that were initially identified through the main systematic search.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.t001

The results of the Google and Espacenet search for commercially available tests and patents were summarized using Microsoft Excel (version 16.78). To assess the suitability of each identified commercial test for inclusion in our study, we visited the website of the corresponding manufacturer/distributor to review product specifications, assay protocols, and other relevant information. Inclusion or exclusion was guided by the basic question whether it consisted of a diagnostic assay for detecting STH infection in its natural host, available either as commercial assay or as laboratory diagnostic service. We assessed the eligibility of the patents using the data accessible on Espacenet. This involved a straightforward screening process retaining all patents related to the diagnosis of STHs using serum or plasma as the sample specimen. Screening of commercial assays and patents was performed by one reviewer (SR).

Data charting

To facilitate data charting of the literature search results, a data charting form was designed upon agreement by three review authors (SR, PG, BL). This form was developed through both iterative discussions and pilot testing on several key records. Data charting was completed by one review author (SR), but discussed at length with two other review authors (PG, BL). The final data charting form included: (i) the year of publication, (ii) details about authors and research group, (iii) the primary aim of the study (e.g., assessment of seroprevalence), (iv) the target species (e.g., Ascaris ) and target disease in the case of Ascaris (intestinal parasitosis or larva migrans syndrome (LMS) [ 25 , 26 ]), (v) the test species (e.g., human), (vi) the study population, (vii) the analyte detection agent used (e.g., somatic antigens of adult Ascaris ), (viii) the test technology principle applied (e.g., enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)), (ix) the target analyte detected (e.g., anti- Ascaris IgG4), (x) source of the assay (in-house or commercially available), and (xi) specific test parameters (e.g., cut-off value, sensitivity and specificity). To ensure clarity and transparency, we have provided descriptions of the key theoretical terms used in this scoping review in Table 2 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.t002

We used the same data charting form to screen all commercially available tests, except for the year of publication, the primary aim of the study, the study population and the source of the assay. Meanwhile, we included information on the name of the test and its manufacturer. Companies were contacted through e-mail to obtain all necessary data. At last, we aimed to extract the same data from the retrieved patent documents. Data management and tabulation were performed using Microsoft Excel (version 16.78). Data visualization of the charting results was done using R Studio (Version 2023.03.0+386) [ 27 ] and Microsoft PowerPoint (version 16.78).

Synthesis approach

We synthesised all data and directed our analysis towards six key aspects:

i. Target species and temporal trends of the published literature : we investigated target species and the temporal trends of the published literature.
ii. Characteristics of the assays used for serodiagnosis of STHs : we delved into the characteristics of reported assays. For this, we summarised the technology principles employed, the specific target analytes, and the agents used for analyte detection.
iii. Characteristics of described sample sets : we summarized the sample sets described in the records, documenting the test species, origin of samples and size.
iv. Evaluation of serodiagnostic assay performance : we examined how diagnostic cut-off values, and the parameters diagnostic sensitivity and specificity were defined by the researchers to evaluate the diagnostic performance of the assay.
v. Advancements in serological diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminthiases : we reflected on progress in serological diagnosis of STHs. For this research question, we defined the most advanced stage as the point where the assay is routinely used to guide STH prevention and control programs in veterinary or human medicine. This stage represents the intended use case as defined in the WHO’s target product profiles for human STHs [ 13 ]. We categorized all included assays into four distinct stages, including assay development (Stage 1), cut-off establishment (Stage 2), research use (Stage 3), and routine implementation to guide STH prevention and control programs (Stage 4). The criteria applied to determine the advancement stage of the assays are summarized in Table 3 .
vi. Patents and commercially available tests : we summarized the outcomes of searches for commercially available assays and patents, and we evaluated the stage(s) where these commercial assays went through, applying the criteria described in Table 3 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.t003

Results and discussion

Our search strategy comprised two distinct components: (i) a literature search for published records and (ii) an exploration of commercially available assays and diagnostic services, and patents that either resulted in or could potentially result in commercial assays. Fig 1 presents the literature search and screening procedure that was employed for the published records only. This literature search involved two systematic database searches as well as a reference search, which together yielded a total of 1,469 unique records. After screening these records by title and abstract, 174 records were found eligible. Finally, a total of 85 records were included in this scoping review of which a detailed summary is provided in S3 Info , including (i) the year of publication, (ii) details on the title, journal and authors, (iii) the advancement stage applying the aforementioned criteria ( Table 3 ), (iv) the test species (e.g., humans), (v) details on the study population, (vi) the analyte detection agent used (e.g., somatic antigens of adult Ascaris ), (vii) the assay technology principle applied (e.g., ELISA), (viii) the target analyte detected (e.g., IgG4), (ix) the source of the assay (in-house or commercially available), and (x) specific assay parameters (cut-off value, diagnostic sensitivity and specificity). Given the distinct biological differences in STH species, we have clustered these details on an STH species level. For assays targeting Ascaris , the list also includes (xi) the target disease, either intestinal parasitosis or LMS [ 25 , 26 ].

STH: soil-transmitted helminth, HW: hookworm.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.g001

The second component of our search strategy yielded the following outcomes. We were unable to identify any commercially available tests for Trichuris or hookworm infections. However, in the context of Ascaris , we identified a minimum of seven different tests for natural host species currently available on the market. Conducting the patent search resulted in 42 records, which were manually assessed to determine eligibility. Among these, three patents were found to be relevant to our research questions.

Target species and temporal trends of the published literature

Fig 2 illustrates two key aspects of the 85 included records: the year of publication ( Fig 2A ) and the target species ( Fig 2B ). A significant portion (79 records; 92.9%) concentrated on a single STH species. Among these, 54 records focused on Ascaris , 13 records focused on Trichuris , and 12 records focused on hookworms. In contrast, only six records (7.1%) targeted multiple STH species. Among these, four records examined all three STHs, one record focused on Ascaris and Trichuris , and one record focused on Ascaris and hookworms.

HW: hookworm, STH: soil-transmitted helminth. S3 Info provides an overview of the 85 records used to create the figures.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.g002

Our analysis revealed a distinct pattern in the publication timeline. Before 1987, retrieved records only focused on Ascaris . Between 1988 and 1998, we observed an initial surge of records on all three STH species. Notably, the majority of records in this period focusing on Trichuris were attributed to a single research group, unlike records involving Ascaris and hookworms ( S3 Info ). From 1998 to 2014, there was a relatively limited and skewed research output. However, since 2014, we have observed a renewed interest in the development of serological assays, with an emphasis on diagnosing multiple STH infections simultaneously.

Characteristics of the assays used for serodiagnosis of STHs

Fig 3 summarises the 85 records by the applied technology principle ( Fig 3A ), the target analyte detected ( Fig 3B ) and the analyte detection agent used ( Fig 3C ). Our analysis also considered the landscape of serodiagnostic research over time, graphically presented in S4 Info , to gain insights into how these three assay characteristics have evolved throughout the years.

The number of records by technology principle applied ( panel A ), target analyte detected ( panel B ) and analyte detection agent used ( panel C ). The target analyte refers to the specific analyte that a test is designed to detect or measure, while the analyte detection agent refers to the product used in the test to investigate the presence of the target analyte. The color indicates the STH species targeted in each record. In cases where a record applied multiple options, the records was included in the count of all relevant options. FAT: fluorescent antibody test, ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, MFI: multiplex flow immunoassay, qSAT: quantitative suspension array technology, SDS-PAGE: sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, REIA: reverse enzyme immunoassay, RIA: radioimmunoassay, Ab: antibody, Ig: immunoglobulin, IC: immunecomplex, ES: excretory/secretory, HW: hookworm, STH: soil-transmitted helminth. S3 Info provides an overview of the 85 records used to create the figures.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.g003

Technology principle.

Fig 3A highlights that ELISA (used in 60 records) and western blot (used in 19 records) are the most applied technologies in research on serodiagnosis for STHs, employed for over five decades as shown in S4 Info , from the 1970s to 2022. Note that, when referring to ELISA in this context, it specifically pertains to the indirect ELISA type. Additionally, variants of the indirect ELISA principle, such as reverse enzyme immunoassay (REIA), sandwich ELISA, and multiple-dot ELISA, have also been explored [ 28 – 30 ]. Direct and indirect fluorescent antibody tests (FAT) [ 31 , 32 ], radioimmunoassays (RIA) [ 33 , 34 ], complement fixation tests [ 35 , 36 ], and double immunodiffusion tests [ 30 , 34 , 36 , 37 ], were employed until 2003, after which ELISA and western blot became the predominant techniques together with new technologies that appeared on the scene ( S4 Info ). Among these new technologies, the multiplex bead assay [ 38 ], peptide microarray immunoassays [ 39 , 40 ] and quantitative suspension array technology (qSAT) assays [ 41 , 42 ] represent examples of multiplex assays. These advanced technologies have been applied in studies focused on serodiagnosis for multiple STH species ( S3 Info ). Notably, an interesting distinction is seen in Fig 3A , showing technological diversity within different STH targets. Records on Trichuris and hookworms have a more limited range of technology principles. Conversely, research on Ascaris demonstrates a broader spectrum of technologies used.

Target analyte.

As shown in Fig 3B , apart from three, all records report human or animal antibodies as target analytes. S4 Info indicates that early research did not always differentiate between antibody isotypes, possibly due to the unavailability of specific conjugates. For the detection of Ascaris infections, IgG appears to be the preferred target analyte for pigs, whereas IgG4 has become the most interesting target for humans [ 43 – 47 ] ( S3 Info ). For Trichuris , the most recent studies in humans focus on total IgG [ 40 , 48 ] ( S4 Info ). For hookworms, researchers have strongly debated about the most appropriate isotype, with some advocating for IgE [ 49 ] or IgG4 [ 50 , 51 ], but recent research has focused mainly on total IgG, IgG4, and IgM [ 40 , 52 , 53 ] ( S4 Info ). The three remaining records investigated the diagnostic value of detecting immune complexes (ICs) (i.e., antigen-antibody complexes) [ 29 , 54 ], and Ascaris proteins [ 33 ] in blood fluids.

Analyte detection agent.

In Fig 3C , we have grouped the analyte detection agents in seven categories: homogenate, excretory/secretory (ES) antigens, pseudocoelomic fluid, selected native antigen, recombinant antigen, peptide or other. Detailed descriptions of the analyte detection agents can be found in S3 Info . It was observed that the majority of records focused on antibodies as target analytes, and as a result, most analyte detection agents were proteins and peptides that bind to or interact with the target analyte to enable its detection and/or quantification. It appeared that over 50 years of research, most assays relied on protein mixtures, particularly homogenates and ES antigens of larvae or adult worms ( S4 Info ). For Ascaris , researchers also explored the potential of its pseudocoelomic fluid, although this was not the case for Trichuris or hookworms, likely due to practical considerations related to the size of the worms ( Trichuris : up to 5 cm; hookworms: up to 2 cm; Ascaris : up to 40 cm) [ 36 , 37 , 55 – 57 ]. In recent years, there has been a shift towards studies focusing on specific proteins (e.g., cuticular collagen of Necator americanus [ 58 ], native Ascaris suum haemoglobin [ 47 , 59 , 60 ]) rather than antigen mixtures ( S4 Info ). In addition, recombinantly produced forms of specific proteins [ 41 , 42 , 53 ] offer advantages such as reproducibility and sustainability as a resource when compared to native antigen preparations. Peptide research [ 39 , 40 ] is particularly interesting as it allows for the identification of specific epitopes and serves as a stepping stone for the development of multiplex diagnostic assays. The ‘other’ category in our analysis includes parasite cross-sections [ 31 ] and the use of anti-parasite serum (e.g., rabbit anti- A . suum serum [ 33 ], chicken anti- A . suum IgY [ 29 , 54 ]), as well as hatching fluid [ 56 ].

Characteristics of described sample sets

Of all the sample sets described in the 85 included records, 58.5% covered human samples as shown in Fig 4A . The rationale behind testing non-human samples mainly lies in the application of serodiagnosis for animals that are natural hosts for STH species, such as pigs in the context of Ascaris (25.5% of all sample sets described). Additionally, some studies used experimentally infected animals or laboratory animals for assays in development (e.g., rabbits (5.3%) and mice (3.2%)). One of the records reports a setback in the production of an effective multiplex flow immunoassay for hookworms and consequently, no sample set was reported for further investigation [ 52 ].

Regarding human sample sets, Fig 4B indicates that sample sizes ranged from six to 6,718 individuals, and Fig 4C provides insights into their origin. The majority of endemic samples were collected in Asia and North-America. However, the latter may partly stem from the reuse of the same sample sets, especially in older records, for investigating various research questions [ 61 – 68 ] ( S3 Info ). Remarkably, despite the use of sample sets from Europe as non-endemic negative controls, there were also seven studies that assessed seroprevalence in European regions (e.g., The Netherlands and Austria) [ 69 – 75 ].

Panel A displays the proportion of sample sets that involved a particular test species. Panel B indicates the size of the human sample sets. Panel C provides insights into the origin of the human sample sets. Certain sample sets were re-used and therefore reported in multiple records, resulting in multiple counts in panels A and B. To create panel C, we considered that a reported sample set might contain samples from different origins (e.g., positive samples from Africa, negative samples from Europe), and treated these as distinct human sample sets in our origin analysis. S3 Info provides an overview of the 85 records used in the analyses.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.g004

Evaluation of serodiagnostic assay performance

The performance parameters (diagnostic sensitivity and/or specificity) were reported for 26 in-house assays and they are summarized in Table 4 (full details can be found in S3 Info ). Overall, the range in reported diagnostic sensitivity and specificity equalled 11.8% - 100% and 0% - 100%, respectively. The observed variation in performance is not unexpected and can already be explained by inherent differences in performance across the specific antigens used [ 42 , 53 , 76 ], the antibody isotype [ 51 , 76 ], the diagnostic platform [ 35 ] and the test species [ 77 ]. However, it is important to also acknowledge the methodological differences, such as the sample sets [ 77 ], the methodology to determine the cut-off [ 42 , 78 ], and the definition of the reference standard [ 57 ]. The sample sets used to define these parameters, show significant variability in size and were collected from both human and animal hosts, as well as immunised animals. Four different methods were employed to define cut-off values, including both direct approaches (the mean plus a multiple of the standard deviation of the values obtained in negative samples or using a multiple of the value observed in negative samples), and more advanced methods (Gaussian mixture models and receiver operating characteristic curves). As expected, the most frequently applied reference standard for STH infection was the presence of worm eggs in stool, which were detected through different microscopic methods (e.g., McMaster, Kato-Katz thick smear, zinc sulphate flotation and formol ether concentration). Alternative reference standards were the presence of liver white spots or adult worms, experimental infections, or qPCR data. Generally, the absence of a true gold standard for STH infections is an important obstacle to accurately assess the diagnostic performance. Detecting eggs is only possible when mature adult worms are present, and although microscopic methods are widely used, they come with inherent limitations in terms of sensitivity and specificity. The assessment of liver white spots, an immunological response of the host during larval migration through liver tissue, is subjective and prolonged exposure of individuals to the parasite can negatively impact the test’s sensitivity. When it comes to diagnosing Ascaris LMS, there are even no alternative diagnostic methods available [ 71 ]. On the contrary, animals subjected to experimental infection with a single STH species can represent the ultimate gold standard [ 59 , 79 – 83 ]. However, when interpreting diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of tests validated through experimental infections, it is crucial to consider two key elements of these experiments: (i) the infection dose (e.g., seroconversion occurs more rapidly with higher parasite infection doses) and (ii) the duration of infection (e.g., prolonged exposure can lead to a higher seroconversion rate) [ 56 ]. Although using extremely low infection doses administered as trickle infections to mimic natural infections is a potential approach, the representativeness of these infections still remains uncertain, as there are currently no data available on actual infection doses in natural cases, such as the quantity of eggs or larvae children are exposed to when living in endemic regions. Another important aspect when evaluating assay performance is the potential for biases in study populations. When screening individuals or animals for STH infections, it is important to acknowledge that these subjects might have been exposed to other (non-)parasitic infections, adding complexity into the diagnostic process. A strategy to manage this complexity is to identify and document other infections and include the samples in the negative control group, allowing the evaluation of cross-reactivity [ 51 , 78 ]. Nevertheless, this approach assumes that all other infections are easily distinguishable from the targeted STH infections. In reality, this can be challenging, especially if they trigger similar immune responses. Additionally, it assumes that all relevant co-infections are known and documented, which is rarely the case.

Records are clustered based on target species, technology principle and analyte detection agent. HW: hookworm, LMS: larva migrans syndrome, FAT: fluorescent antibody test, ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, REIA: reverse enzyme immunoassay, qSAT: quantitative suspension array technology, Ig: immunoglobulin, ES: excretory/secretory, SD: standard deviation, STH: soil-transmitted helminth, ROC: Receiver Operating Characteristic, Ref: reference.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.t004

Advancements in serological diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminthiases

Fig 5 offers a summary of advancements in the serological diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminthiases. S5 Info provides an overview of the records used to create Fig 5 . All records were listed based on the described analyte detection agent because of the essential role played by the discovery of these agents in the development of novel tests. Typically, a specific analyte detection agent is tested in several test technology principles, and assay-optimization might include assessment of different target analytes. For instance, researchers may initially examine their discovered analyte detection agent (e.g., a recombinant antigen) in western blotting, thereafter transition to ELISA, and subsequently refine their test by the detection of specific target analytes (e.g., immunoglobulin isotypes). Three records were excluded from Fig 5 ([ 69 ], [ 86 ] and [ 87 ]) because they made use of commercially available tests for which the analyte detection agent was unspecified.

Assays/records are listed based on the described analyte detection agent. The icons represent the species comprising the reported sample sets. A comprehensive description of the four stages can be found in Table 3 and S5 Info provides a systematic overview of the records used to create this figure.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.g005

Based on our analysis, four interesting observations were made. First, samples from both laboratory animals (e.g., mice) and natural hosts (e.g., dogs) were used for the development of the assay (Stage 1) and the establishment of diagnostic cut-offs (Stage 2), while research use (Stage 3) was mostly observed in porcine and human populations. Additionally, a broader range of test species was employed for Ascaris -related research. A second remarkable finding is the fact that certain records used assays in endemic settings without establishing diagnostic cut-offs. A third significant observation is the correlation between a higher percentage of records focusing on Ascaris and a greater number of assays progressing to Stage 3, as compared to those related to Trichuris and hookworm infections. Further investigation of S3 Info and S5 Info revealed that four specific Ascaris assays show recurrent use across several recent epidemiological records (Stage 3). The first of these notable assays is an ELISA coated with ES proteins from migrating larvae, originally developed based on an assay for the diagnosis of LMS due to Toxocara [ 88 ]. This ELISA was described by Pinelli and colleagues as the most recommended serological assay for the diagnosis of Ascaris LMS [ 70 ]. A second notable assay for diagnosing LMS, is an immunoblot developed by Schneider et al. (2015), also relying on larval ES material [ 71 ]. A third assay, first described by Vlaminck et al. (2012) for intestinal ascariasis in pigs, is an ELISA based on native A . suum haemoglobin [ 59 ]. Finally, an ELISA using homogenate from A . suum lung stage larvae, introduced by Vandekerckhove et al. (2017), completes the set of assays repeatedly used in the included records [ 79 ]. A last and important observation made from Fig 5 is the fact that none of the literature records included in our analysis mentioned the routine implementation of assays to guide STH prevention and control programs. Nonetheless, there is evidence suggesting that certain commercial assays have progressed to this stage, as we discuss in more detail below.

Patents and commercially available tests

Through the patent search, we identified 42 records that were subsequently assessed for eligibility. Three patents were related to our research questions ( S6 Info ). However, to the best of our knowledge, none of the patents have resulted in successful novel diagnostic tests with present-day applications.

We were unable to identify any commercially available tests for Trichuris or hookworms. In the case of Ascaris , there are at least seven different tests commercially on the market, all are ELISA assays ( Table 5 ). Two of these tests are intended for the use in pigs. The SERASCA assay, based on native Ascaris haemoglobin, was developed at Ghent University (Belgium) and is currently marketed as laboratory diagnostic service for the diagnosis of Ascaris infection pressure in fattening pigs. Based on the SERASCA, the ELISA kit Monoscreen AbELISA Ascaris suum (Bio-X Diagnostics) is commercially available. Published research papers provide a comprehensive description of how the SERASCA assay was developed and validated [ 59 , 60 ]. The performance of the Monoscreen ELISA was calculated using the SERASCA assay as reference. Preceding sections of this scoping review incorporated five records using this assay as an in-house research tool [ 59 , 60 , 79 , 89 , 90 ]. In addition, five records made use of the commercial versions of this ELISA to evaluate seroprevalence of A . suum infection in Austria [ 91 ], France [ 92 ], Greece [ 93 ], Finland [ 94 ] and China [ 20 ] in the framework of epidemiological research (Stage 3 in Fig 5 ). Online information for both tests explicitly state their diagnostic purpose, which is to estimate the Ascaris infection intensity in a pig herd. This underscores that both tests have progressed to the advanced phase of routine application to guide prevention and control programs by the intended users, namely veterinarians. To the best of our knowledge, these two assays are the only ones that have progressed to Stage 4.

Records were retrieved by a Google keyword search. A limitation of our search strategy is that records that were buried deeper in the search rankings are potentially omitted. However, we deem our approach comprehensive and inclusive for our study’s specific objectives. NA: information not available. ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.t005

Five ELISA kits retrieved by our search are developed for the detection of ascariasis in humans. The NovaTec ELISA is distributed by at least six distributors, indicating a relatively broad availability of this assay in the market of Europe and North America. The detection agents used in the assays are homogenate (crude extract), pseudocoelomic fluid, or a recombinant protein, although this information was not provided by all companies. The two ELISA kits based on A . lumbricoides crude extract (NovaTec Immundiagnostica and Arigo Biolaboratories Corporation) are equipped with a cut-off control sample and the datasheets give clear instructions on the interpretation of results. These sheets report a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of more than 95%, though it is not mentioned how this was determined. On the contrary, the website of the third human kit, Bordier Affinity Products SA, does provide data on the sample sets used to define sensitivity and specificity, however the size of the sample sets used is relatively small (minimum: 27 samples, maximum: 181 samples) and information on the reference standard for infection and the origin of the samples is limited. Detailed information on the performance of the fourth kit (MyBioSource, Inc.), detecting anti- Ascaris IgM, is absent. The fifth human kit (AFG Bioscience), also detecting IgM, has a reported diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of ≥82.1% and ≥85.7% respectively. The unique feature of this kit is the fact that the ELISA plate is coated with a recombinant protein of Ascaris , of which the sequence is referring to Ascaris Ag1 (NCBI accession number: ACJ03764), one of the twenty most abundant proteins in Ascaris ES products [ 95 ]. Our literature search strategy retrieved four records in which commercially available assays were employed [ 69 , 74 , 86 , 87 ]. In one record, Lassen and colleagues used the NovaLisa Ascaris lumbricoides IgG ELISA for epidemiological research (Stage 3 in Fig 5 ) [ 74 ]. Unfortunately, in the other three cases, though the distributors were mentioned, it was unclear which specific assays were used. This can be attributed to changes in names or reference numbers, current unavailability of the kits, or changes in manufacturers.

In contrast to the veterinary kits, the origin of all five human assays remains ambiguous, as it is unclear whether they are the result of academic research endeavours or if they were developed within the commercial sector. We decided not to include information on the intended use claim of the tests (research use only or medical purposes) to avoid potential confusion related to different definitions and guidance documents (for example between Europe and the USA). However, all available documents imply that these assays are intended for individual patient diagnostics rather than for assessing prevalence within larger populations. The descriptions of the antigens used to coat the ELISA plates are poorly defined, and detailed methodologies regarding their production are absent. While diagnostic sensitivity and specificity are frequently reported, we advise interpreting these values cautiously due to the absence of reports on the reference standard for infection used.

Towards routine implementation of serological diagnosis to guide STH prevention and control programs

While a substantial number of assays are employed in epidemiological research, the current state of serological diagnosis for guiding STH prevention and control programs is limited. Only two assays developed for pigs are used to inform deworming strategies in these populations, inferred from their product information that provides guidelines for sampling design (diagnosis of pig herd infestation based on periodic sampling of 10 animals) and interpretation criteria. For human diagnostics, there is a noticeable gap, as none of the existing assays have been integrated into routine diagnostics within MDA programs, or was even validated on a large scale. While it is indeed debatable whether reports of routine implementation to guide prevention and control in veterinary medicine would be present in the scientific literature, the situation is different for human MDA programs. Clear examples exist, such as the prevalence studies conducted by Leta et al. (2020) in Ethiopia [ 96 ], Tchuenté et al. (2012) in Cameroon [ 97 ], Ibikounlé et al. (2018) in Benin [ 98 ], and Koroma et al. (2010) in Sierra Leone [ 99 ]. These studies, which all employed the Kato-Katz thick smear method, have been instrumental in mapping the prevalence of STHs in these regions, and provide the necessary tools for their Ministries of Health to plan national control programs. Specifically concerning large-scale validation of assays, the most extensive sample set reported in the included records was less than 7,000 individuals, sourced cross-sectionally from a single country [ 45 ]. For a broader perspective, large-scale validation efforts comparable in size to the Geshiyaro Project (annual collection of over 6,000 samples) [ 100 ] or Deworm3 (longitudinal sampling of 500–1,000 individuals across 40 clusters) [ 101 , 102 ] are essential. Moreover, since guiding STH prevention and control is the ultimate purpose, this suggests that validation should also encompass progress towards these objectives, providing guidelines for sampling design and program decisions, like the WHO guidelines currently used for Kato-Katz thick smear [ 103 ].

This review identifies important gaps that might be contributing to the present limited state of serological assay implementation in human MDA programs. First of all, for the transition from Stage 1 (assay development) to Stage 2 (cut-off establishment), meticulously characterized sample sets play a key role. In veterinary medicine, obtaining these samples via animal trials is feasible, whereas biobanks with extensively characterized human samples are not readily available. Access to such biobanks has the potential to significantly accelerate the validation of new assays. Of particular interest are sample sets that not only focus on STHs but also comprehensively identify and thoroughly document other NTDs and non-NTDs infections. Additionally, it will be important that these samples are made accessible to research groups worldwide, facilitating meaningful head-to-head comparisons between studies and assays.

To make the transition from Stage 2 (cut-off establishment) to Stage 3 (research use), our assessments revealed that it will be important to standardize reporting practices, including (i) precise sample set descriptions, (ii) the chosen reference standard for assessing STH infection, and the statistical methodologies employed in both (iii) defining cut-off values and (iv) evaluating the diagnostic performance. This might eventually streamline research, which in turn will be useful in refining and optimizing serological assays for routine implementation. In this context, the establishment of comprehensive assay inventories as currently undertaken by FIND ( https://www.finddx.org/ntds/test-directory ) can play a key role. Additionally, the present scoping review can assist researchers by preventing replication in experiments. Our current focus was not on detailed study quality assessment or outcome synthesis, as these tasks are beyond the scope of a scoping review. However, this study can be a foundational step for a future systematic review that focusses on providing a critical analysis of the research conducted with the aim to draw conclusions regarding the quality of the existing assays.

As mentioned earlier, the transition from research use (Stage 3) to routine implementation (Stage 4) requires large-scale performance validation that also includes establishment of guidelines for program decision-making. First, it is important to acknowledge that the primary aim of research groups behind developing assays might not always be to facilitate program decision-making. Second, the concept of ‘validation’ depends entirely on the question ‘what are the necessary characteristics of a useful serodiagnostic test’, which in turn relies completely on a thorough understanding of the specific outcomes we aim to measure. In the context of animal production systems, where animals have a more limited lifespan, simply identifying prior infection levels might be sufficient for enhancing future prevention and control strategies. In contrast, the implementation in human MDA programs is much more complex. Essential factors to consider include whether the assay is intended for mapping, M&E or post-program surveillance, and the way the results are interpreted (e.g., determining prevalence, analysing quantitative results, and assessing recurrence of the disease). These questions go beyond the difference between measuring exposure by serology vs . detecting patent infection through Kato-Katz thick smear, delving deeper into the strategic use of serological data to guide informed decision-making processes. Furthermore, if we consider blood samples as a way forward for more integrated M&E of NTD programs and an opportunity to integrate NTDs into existing public health surveillance platforms, a significant challenge lies in the validation of multiplex assays. One of the questions is whether these assays should conform to the specific TPPs for each disease, or if there is room for flexibility in terms of diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, particularly when examining larger populations or adopting multi-step testing approaches (e.g., serodiagnostic assay with high sensitivity followed by a test with high specificity). Furthermore, in the context of STH diagnostics, a pan-helminth test capable of detecting all three species ( Ascaris , Trichuris and hookworms), therefore however not meeting the TPPs, might present a potential for post-program surveillance. In summary, addressing many of these core questions in both the STH and wider NTD community will be crucial for progressing towards the routine implementation of serology in NTD prevention and control.

We identified 85 relevant literature records spanning over 50 years, with a notable increased interest in serological assay development in recent years. Most of the research efforts concentrated on diagnosing Ascaris infections in both humans and pigs, primarily using ELISA and western blot technologies. Almost all records targeted antibodies as analytes, employing proteins and peptides as analyte detection agents. Approximately 60% of sample sets described pertained to human samples. No commercially available tests for Trichuris or hookworms were identified, while for Ascaris , there are at least seven different ELISAs on the market. While a substantial number of assays are employed in epidemiological research, the current state of serological diagnosis for guiding STH prevention and control programs is limited. Only two assays designed for pigs are used to inform efficient deworming practices in pig populations. This scoping review identified factors that potentially contribute to the present limited implementation of serological assays in human MDA programs, despite their demonstrated potential in veterinary medicine. The challenges include the lack of well-documented human sample sets and the absence of reporting standards and assay inventories. Additionally, it highlighted numerous critical questions regarding the strategic use of serological data to facilitate informed decision-making. Addressing these challenges and questions is essential for enhancing the integration of serological approaches into NTD prevention and control efforts.

Supporting information

S1 info. preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses extension for scoping reviews (prisma-scr) checklist..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.s001

S2 Info. Detailed search strategies in Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library, Google and Espacenet.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.s002

S3 Info. Comprehensive summary of the 85 literature records included in this scoping review.

The table includes (i) the year of publication, (ii) details about authors and research group, (iii) the advancement stage according to criteria described in Table 3 , (iv) the test species, (v) details on the study population, (vi) the analyte detection agent used, (vii) the assay technology principle applied, (viii) the target analyte detected, (ix) the source of the assay, and (x) specific assay parameters. We have clustered these details on an STH species level. For assays targeting Ascaris , the list also includes (xi) the target disease (intestinal parasitosis or LMS). The level of detail stated in the table is limited to that provided in the articles. In the context of Ascaris , when not specified, we are referring to intestinal parasitosis (e.g., for positive/negative individuals).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.s003

S4 Info. Characteristics of the assays used for serodiagnosis of STHs considering the evolving landscape of research over time.

The number of records by technology principle (page 1), target analyte detected (page 2) and analyte detection agent used (page 3). Records are presented in historical order by year of publication. For target analyte and analyte detection agent, we have clustered the results on an STH species level. In cases where a record used multiple options, the records was included in the count of all relevant options. FAT: fluorescent antibody test, ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, MFI: multiplex flow immunoassay, qSAT: quantitative suspension array technology, SDS-PAGE: sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, REIA: reverse enzyme immunoassay, RIA: radioimmunoassay, Ab: antibody, Ig: immunoglobulin, IC: immunecomplex, ES: excretory/secretory, HW: hookworm, STH: soil-transmitted helminth.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.s004

S5 Info. Summary of all the references used to create Fig 5 .

References are presented in a table consistent with Fig 5 itself.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.s005

S6 Info. Overview of the patent documents related to serological diagnosis for soil-transmitted helminthiases.

Records were retrieved by an Espacenet patent search. NA: information not available.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012049.s006

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Misti for her catalytic role during the manuscript writing process.

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