analysis of operations management case study

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Course info, instructors.

• Prof. Charles H. Fine
• Prof. Tauhid Zaman

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• Sloan School of Management

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• Mathematics
• Social Science

Introduction to Operations Management

Cases and readings.

The required readings for this course include:

• Cases listed in the Cases/Readings column below
• Goldratt, Eliyah M., and Jeff Cox. The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement . 2nd revised ed. North River Press, 1992. ISBN: 9780884270614.
• [MSD] = Cachon, Gerard, and Christian Terwiesch. Matching Supply with Demand: An Introduction to Operations Management . 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, 2012. ISBN: 9780073525204.

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Operations Management Case Studies

Operations Management

Browse operations management learning materials including case studies, simulations, and online courses. Introduce core concepts and real-world challenges to create memorable learning experiences for your students.

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BMW’s Operations Management (10 Critical Decisions) & Productivity

Operations management at BMW (Bayerische Motoren Werke/Bavarian Motor Works) involves critical decisions in vehicle manufacturing, distribution, and sales. External factors affecting the automotive and motorcycle industries influence critical decisions in the company’s operations management. For example, the trends discussed in the PESTEL/PESTLE analysis of BMW come with opportunities and threats that affect operations management effectiveness and business productivity. The automaker’s organizational characteristics, strategies, and goals determine business responses to these external influences. Operations management effectiveness influences BMW’s productivity and profitability in manufacturing, distribution, sales, and other areas of the automotive and motorcycle business.

Best practices in operations management optimize the business for high productivity and efficiency that mitigate the effects of the competitive pressure detailed in the Five Forces analysis of BMW . This pressure involves multinational competitors, such as General Motors , Tesla , Ford , Toyota , and other automakers, as well as motorcycle manufacturers, like Harley-Davidson . These competitors’ operations management practices are also aligned toward achieving industry leadership and business growth in vehicle markets where BMW operates.

BMW’s Operations Management: 10 Critical Decisions

1. Goods and Services. BMW’s operations management objective for its products is to maintain consistent production costs and output quality. Consistent costs ensure profit margins, while consistent vehicle quality supports customer satisfaction and competitiveness in the market. Product design revolves around goals based on BMW’s mission statement and vision statement , which focus on premium solutions for transportation and mobility. Thus, the company’s operations management decisions and productivity targets in this area are focused on enhancing business processes for excellent automobiles and motorcycles.

2. Quality Management. BMW’s quality standards and related operating targets align with the company’s premium branding. The company’s operations management ensures that quality satisfies the expectations of customers, including car buyers and drivers. Premium quality measures and standards in operations management contribute to competitiveness and growth that satisfy BMW’s competitive strategy and growth strategies . For example, managers implement quality standards alongside productivity goals to grow the automotive business based on economies of scale and the strategy of product differentiation.

3. Process and Capacity Design. BMW’s strategic objective for this area of operations management is to optimize its business through streamlined manufacturing processes that maximize the utility of organizational capabilities and technological resources. For example, the company uses automation and information technology integrated into the design of car production processes. This critical decision area of operations management utilizes economies of scale and the other business strengths enumerated in the SWOT analysis of BMW . These competitive advantages maximize productivity and output while keeping business profitability and the premium status of BMW’s brands.

4. Location. Operations management at BMW accounts for the proximity of manufacturing operations to suppliers and target markets. The locations of the company’s facilities around the world are based on economic opportunities, market size, ease of doing business, and other variables. For example, the company has many facilities in Europe to support production that matches market demand for BMW cars and motorcycles in the region. This location strategy optimizes the automaker’s productivity in manufacturing processes and ability to satisfy market demand. This strategic decision area of operations management accounts for BMW’s marketing mix (4Ps) , particularly the places or locations involved in the company’s distribution strategy.

5. Layout Design and Strategy. BMW approaches this critical decision of operations management by integrating technology into conventional manufacturing operations, resulting in a hybrid layout strategy that accommodates technology to support efficiency. In this area, the company’s objective is to maximize productivity through the efficient movement of resources and information in facilities, such as manufacturing plants and offices. The departments, divisions, groups, and teams in BMW’s organizational structure (business structure) set some of the requirements for the layouts in this area of operations management.

6. Human Resources and Job Design. BMW’s human resource management aims for continuous development that supports the requirements for innovation, design, competitiveness, and profitability. The automotive company needs to ensure the innovative excellence and productivity of its workforce to satisfy business goals through this critical decision of operations management. The traits of BMW’s organizational culture (business culture) are included in decisions and programs for human resource management. This area of operations management includes cultural considerations in job design to support cohesion in BMW’s business organization.

7. Supply Chain Management. BMW’s supply chain involves suppliers of materials and components used in cars and motorcycles. In this area, the automaker’s operations management focuses on streamlining the supply chain to support manufacturing processes despite fluctuations in productivity targets based on market demand. This critical decision of operations management accounts for technological changes, economic trends, and other external factors affecting BMW’s operations and business performance. For example, smart technology is increasingly a factor in the design of BMW automobiles and, consequently, in procurement decisions in the company’s supply chain management.

8. Inventory. Inventory management depends on markets where BMW facilities are located. For example, the automaker’s operations management objectives and measures for inventory control in the European market are different from those in the North American market. BMW accounts for market-specific supply and demand trends and their effects on productivity, efficiency, and inventory sufficiency.

9. Scheduling. BMW matches production schedules and human resource schedules to market demand and sales. Forecasts are used to inform this critical decision of operations management to maintain schedules that keep operations productive. For example, supply shortage forecasts inform BMW’s operations management when to schedule procurement to prevent disruptions in manufacturing processes.

10. Maintenance. BMW’s operations management objective in this critical decision area is to maintain reliable and consistent resources and processes, including manufacturing and distribution processes. Maintenance determines the automaker’s stability and reliability in satisfying market demand. Effective and timely maintenance supports BMW’s sustainability and other CSR and ESG goals and objectives by ensuring productivity and optimal efficiency that minimizes waste. The company’s managers also provide business maintenance guidelines for operations management at dealerships and other business partners.

Productivity Metrics at BMW

Focus on premium mobility and transportation solutions makes BMW’s operations management apply productivity metrics specific to material procurement and vehicle manufacturing and distribution. The following productivity metrics apply to BMW’s operations:

• Cars assembled per quarter (manufacturing productivity)
• Concept designs completed per year (vehicle design productivity)
• Cars sold per quarter (dealership productivity)
• Motorcycles sold per quarter (dealership productivity)
• BMW Group – Industry 4.0 – Digitalisation in Production .
• BMW Group Design .
• BMW Group Locations Worldwide .
• BMW Group Strategy .
• BMW Group Technology Radar .
• Chan, F. T., & Ding, K. (2023). Industrial intelligence-driven production and operations management. International Journal of Production Research, 61 (13), 4215-4219.
• Chen, L. (2023). The application of fluid mechanics in the research of classic car design in BMW. Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology, 71 , 53-60.
• Plantec, Q., Deval, M. A., Hooge, S., & Weil, B. (2023). Big data as an exploration trigger or problem-solving patch: Design and integration of AI-embedded systems in the automotive industry. Technovation, 124 , 102763.
• Tsarouhas, P. (2023). New trends in production and operations management. Applied Sciences, 13 (16), 9071.
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Operations strategy case studies

Customer operations.

A leading US non-profit health insurer focused on service as a key differentiator. It wanted to gain insight into current operational performance, and develop customer-centric capabilities like self-service and digital competency. PwC's Strategy& was engaged to evaluate and address gaps in customer and member engagement.

Leveraging our health insurance expertise, proprietary market research databases, and best practices to help the client develop its differentiated customer-centric capabilities, we identified quick wins included outsourcing of manual activities, automation of macros/scripting, and standardization of call center work-from-home policies. We delivered a plan to enhance workforce management, consolidate provider data claim, and move to pre-pay policy. Additional recommendations addressed network rationalization, timely issuance of ID cards, and reducing SG&A expenses.

The project identified $25M investment in provider engagement, flexible network design, personalized member service, and real-time enrollment to achieve the desired differentiating capabilities.

Innovation and product development

A global chemicals specialty company with multiple business units and several existing embedded R&D teams was challenged by stagnating growth in difficult market conditions and the client was seeking to reinvigorate the portfolio. The client sought to consolidate R&D capabilities and establish a corporate innovation function to coordinate and drive its long-term R&D agenda and drive growth.

Strategy& was asked to design the innovation operating model, define the collaboration with business units, and develop a concept for R&D partnerships and venturing to drive growth.

We established a target operating model, refocused product innovation into clusters and developed a venturing approach. The client experienced a significant upswing in R&D productivity, new record numbers of patents filed, and breakthroughs innovations in a number of focus areas. Overall, improved R&D coherence led to 13% direct top line growth and 15% EBITDA improvement.

Strategic supply management

A global lighting company with over $5B sales revenue across more than 130 countries was faced with tremendous market disruptions resulting from the transition from traditional lighting to LED. To successfully play in this significantly different market, the company sold off its traditional business and refocused on the technically driven, fast-cycled LED business. To enable this, the client had to adopt new business models. Within this context, the procurement function had to undergo a major transition towards strategic supply management to effectively support the businesses going forward.

Strategy& supported the client in identifying the new requirements resulting from the changed business models, developing the procurement transformation program based on prioritized 4-6 focus areas (e.g. SRM, Supplier and Innovation Scouting), including appropriate KPIs, and designing a comprehensive change management concept and roadmap to ensure engagement and buy-in from the client team.

The transformation delivered significantly improved service levels for the BUs based on nine key strategic supply management capabilities and an adapted operating model with an improved split of roles and responsibilities between corporate headquarters and business units.

Competitive manufacturing

A global product company with $10B sales revenue across more than 130 countries was suffering from a highly complex manufacturing footprint which was not aligned with the client’s main markets. The client was losing sales and profitability due to high order fulfillment cycle times, high manufacturing costs, and low productivity performance in its key operations.

Strategy& designed the global manufacturing footprint strategy based on clearly defined customer and market requirements. As a consequence, the team agreed to realign the operations footprint from 23 to 15 operations by implementing a more balanced global footprint closer to key customers and/or distribution centers.

The transformation delivered shorter order fulfillment cycle times while simultaneously reducing manufacturing costs by up to 10% and improving overall productivity and flexibility. These results led to a gross margin improvement by 5%.

Capital assets

A leading oil field services and equipment company’s financial performance was lagging its peers, and the company had committed to a 3% improvement in North American net margin. Management believed there was an opportunity to improve the effectiveness of their >$1B equipment maintenance spend, but was unclear on where and how to achieve savings.

Strategy& helped the client pinpoint inefficiencies in their maintenance operating model, shifting from a highly reactive and siloed operation to an integrated team using advanced techniques to deliver maintenance when and where needed based on data. The changes were substantial as the client reorganized to break down functional barriers and create a maintenance process focused on customer performance.

Results were impressive — the maintenance transformation program was implemented at the top 80% of locations by revenue, resulting in a ~2% boost to net margins. It also drove a 20% reduction in maintenance cost, 50% reduction in maintenance related downtime, and improved customer service.

General and administrative (G&A) operations

The securities servicing division of a global banking group sought to address business challenges like reduced productivity, sub-optimal operating model for its Center of Excellence (CoE), lack of process standardization, cost escalation, process fragmentation, and duplication. Strategy& was asked to help in accelerating execution and benefits delivery through process optimization, offshoring and redesign of operating model.

Strategy& developed initial hypothesis through a detailed current state analysis, using both quantitative and qualitative tools, and conducted workshops to identify quick win opportunities. We proposed a redesigned operating model for the CoEs, and suggested in-depth implementation plan to drive the changes.

The project identified potential cost saving of $10M per annum and recommended lean FTE allocation across locations. The project also identified opportunities to achieve process efficiency and provided detailed target state structure of the CoE, including team size, shift patterns, and processes performed.

Enterprise-wide operational excellence

A leading tier-1 automotive supplier for the production and processing of rubber, plastics and metal with $680MM. sales revenue faced significant growth rates, but structures, process efficiency and financial performance did not follow accordingly and significant refinancing/cash flow complications evolved.

Strategy& was tasked with reshaping the company starting from product-market-strategy, developing the organizational structure and optimizing the entire process and operations landscape. An overall restructuring concept based on two pillars was developed: 1) Urgent short-term actions focusing on firefighting to ensure customer satisfaction and 2) sustainable long-term measures facilitating the optimization of the company’s footprint, product creation process, sales initiatives as well as lean production initiatives and the definition of an overall production system.

Continued success of these measures was ensured through the implementation of a common reporting structure and escalation process to track progress and define counter measures in case of deviations. The highly successful project identified cost saving initiatives worth more than $135MM. and had the client achieving EBIT margins of 6-8% during the project.

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The case is centered around the timeline of the Telangana graduates’ MLC elections 2021, which were held against the backdrop of a known unknown: the COVID-19 pandemic. The electoral officials had to be mindful of the numerous security protocols and complexities involved in implementing the election process in such uncertain times. They had to incorporate additional steps and plan for contingencies to mitigate risks while executing the election process. Halfway through the election planning process, it became clear that the number of voters and candidates was unprecedentedly large. This unexpected development necessitated a revision of the prior plan for conducting the elections. Shashank Goel, Chief Electoral Officer (CEO), and M. Satyavani, Deputy CEO, were architecting the plan for conducting the elections with an unexpectedly large number of voters and candidates under pandemic-induced disruptions. Goel was also reflecting on how to develop contingency plans for these elections, given the uncertainty produced by unforeseen external factors and the associated risks. Although he had the mandate to conduct free and fair elections within the stipulated timelines and was assured that the required resources would be provided, several factors had to be considered. According to the constitutional guidelines for the graduates' MLC elections, qualified and registered graduate voters could cast their vote by ranking candidates preferentially. Paper ballots had to be used because electronic voting machines (EVMs) could not handle preferential voting. The scale and magnitude of the elections necessitated jumbo ballot boxes. To manage the process, the number of polling stations had to be increased, and manpower had to be trained. Further, the presence of healthcare workers to ensure the safety of voters and the deployed staff was imperative. The Telangana CEO’s office had to meet the increased logistical and technical requirements and ensure high voting turnouts while executing the election process.

Postponing the election was not an option for the ECI from the standpoint of the legal code of conduct. The Telangana CEO's office prepared a revised election plan. The project plan was amended to incorporate the need for additional resources and logistical support to execute the election process. As the efforts of the staff were maximized effectively, the elections could be conducted smoothly and transparently although a large number of candidates were in the fray.

Teaching and Learning Objectives:

The key case objectives are to enable students to:

• Appreciate the importance of effective project management, planning, and execution in public administration against the backdrop of uncertainties and complexities.
• Understand the importance of risk identification, risk planning, and prioritization.
• Learn strategies to manage various project risks in a real-life situation.
• Identify the characteristics of effective leadership in times of crisis and the key takeaways from such scenarios

The case is designed to be used in courses on Nonprofit Operations Management, Data Analytics, Six Sigma, and Business Process Excellence/Improvement in MBA or Executive MBA programs. It is suitable for teaching students about the common problem of lower rates of volunteerism in nonprofit organizations. Further, the case study helps present the importance and application of inferential statistics (data analytics) to identify the impact of various factors on the problem (effect). The case is set in early 2021 when Shefali Sharma, the Strategy and Learning Manager with Teach For India (TFI), faced a few challenging questions from a professor at the Indian School of Business (ISB) during her presentation at an industry gathering in Hyderabad, India. Sharma was concerned about the low matriculation rate of TFI fellows, despite the rigorous recruitment, selection, and matriculation (RSM) process. A mere 50-60% matriculation rate was not a commensurate return for an investment of INR 6.5 million and the massive effort put into the RSM process. In 2017, Sharma organized focused informative and experiential events to motivate candidates to join the fellowship, but it was not very clear if these events impacted the TFI matriculation rate. After the industry gathering at ISB, Sharma followed up with the professor to seek his guidance in performing data analytics on the matriculation data. Sharma wondered if inferential data analysis could help her understand which demographic factors and events impact the matriculation rate.

Learning Objective

• Illustrate the importance of inferential statistics as a decision support system in resolving business problems
• Formulating and solving a hypothesis testing problem for attribute (discrete) data
• Visually depicting the flow of work across different stages of a process

In response to the uncontrollable second wave of COVID-19 in the south Indian state of Telangana in April 2021, a few like-minded social activists in the capital city of Hyderabad came together to establish a 100-bed medical care center to treat COVID-19 patients. The project was named Ashray. Dr. Chinnababu Sunkavalli (popularly known as Chinna) was the project manager of Project Ashray. In addition to the inherent inadequacy of hospital beds to accommodate the growing number of COVID- 19 patients till March 2021, the city faced a sudden spike of infections in April that worsened the situation. Consequently, the occupancy in government and private hospitals in Hyderabad increased by 485% and 311%, respectively, from March to April. According to a prediction model, Chinna knew that hospital beds would be exhausted in several parts of the city in the next few days. The Project Ashray team was concerned about the situation. The team met on April 26, 2021, to schedule the project to establish the medical care center within the next 10 days. The case is suitable for teaching students how to approach the scheduling problem of a time- constrained project systematically. It helps as a pedagogical aid in teaching management concepts such as project visualization, estimating project duration, float, and project laddering or activity splitting, and tools such as network diagrams, critical path method, and crashing. The case exposes students to a real-time problem-solving approach under uncertainty and crises and the critical role of NGOs in supporting the governments. Alongside the Project Management and Operations Management courses, other courses like Managerial decision-making in nonprofit organizations, Health care delivery, and healthcare operations could also find support from this case.

Learning Objectives:

To learn: Time-constrained projects and associated scheduling problems Project visualization using network diagrams Activity sequencing and converting sequential activities to parallel activities Critical path method (early start, early finish, late start, late finish, forward pass, backward pass, and float) to estimate a project's overall duration Project laddering to reduce the project duration wherever possible Project crashing using linear programming

The case goes on to describe the enormous challenges involved in building the 4.94 km long Bogibeel Bridge in the North Eastern Region (NER) of India. When it was finally commissioned in 2018, it was hailed as a marvel of engineering. With two rail lines and a two-lane road over it, the bridge spanned the mighty Brahmaputra river. The Bogibeel Bridge was India's longest and Asia's second-longest road and rail bridge with fully-welded bridge technology that met European codes and welding standards. The interstate connectivity provided by the bridge enabled important socio-economic developments in the NER that included improved logistics and transportation, the growth of medical and educational facilities, higher employment, and the rise of international trade and tourism. While the outcomes of the project were significant, the efforts that went into constructing the Bogibeel Bridge were equally so. This case study is designed to teach the importance of effective risk planning in project management. Further, the case introduces students to earned value analysis and project oversight in managing large projects. The case centers on Indian Railways' need to quickly discover why the Bogibeel project was not going according to plan. The case also serves as a resource to teach public operations management where the focus is on projects and operations that result in socio-economic outcomes.

• Appreciate the importance of risk planning and risk prioritization and learn strategies to manage various project risks
• Understand earned value management (EVM) and the associated metrics and calculations for project evaluation on time and cost schedules.
• Identify social impact outcomes in public/infrastructure projects.

Access to clean water is so critical for development and survival that the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal number 6 (SDG-6) was to ensure availability and sustained management of water and sanitation. The World Health Organization (WHO) in 2006 estimated that 97 million Indians lacked clean and safe water. Fluoride and total dissolvable solids (TDS) in drinking water were dangerously high at many parts of rural India, with adverse impacts. On the other hand, buying clean drinking water from commercial vendors at market rates was not a realistic alternative, a costly recurring expense that much of India's rural population could not afford. The case tracks the efforts of Huggahalli, head of the technology group of Sri Sathya Sai Seva Organisations (SSSO), to devise a sustainable solution to the drinking water problem in rural India that is low on cost, high on impact. They eventually develop a model that satisfies all these criteria and becomes the basis for a project called Premamrutha Dhaara. Funded by Sri Sathya Sai Central Trust, the project aims to install water purification plants in more than 100 villages spanning six states in India, with the ultimate goal of turning over plant operations to the beneficiary villages and setting up a welfare fund in each village from the revenue generated. Social service projects, particularly in developing countries, have their unique challenges. The case highlights the importance of performing feasibility analysis as part of the project planning in social projects. The case also describes how the financial and operational dimensions of sustainability could lead to a self-sustainable system. The social innovation framework used to deploy the water purification project to achieve broader rural welfare has wider implications for project management, social innovation and change, sustainable operations management, strategic non-profit management, and public policy.

The case offers four possibilities for central objectives:

• To perform feasibility analysis in a Project Management course
• To design a social innovation framework in a Social Innovation and Change course
• To understand the dimensions of self-sustainability in a Sustainable Operations Management course
• To measure social impact in Strategic Non-profit Management and Public Policy courses

During the Indian general election of 2019, the Nizamabad constituency in Telangana state found itself in an unprecedented situation with a record 185 candidates competing for one seat. Most of these candidates were local farmers who saw the election as a platform for raising awareness about local issues, particularly the perceived lack of government support for guaranteeing minimum support prices for their crops. More than 185 candidates had in fact contested elections from a single constituency in a handful of elections in the past. The Election Commission of India (ECI) had declared them to be "special elections" where it made exceptions to the original election schedule to accommodate the large number of candidates. However, in the 2019 general election, the ECI made no such exceptions, announcing instead that polling in Nizamabad would be conducted as per the original schedule and results would be declared at the same time as the rest of the country. This presented a unique and unexpected challenge for Rajat Kumar, the Telangana Chief Electoral Officer (CEO) and his team. How were they to conduct free and fair and elections within the mandated timeframe with the largest number of electronic voting machines (EVMs) ever deployed to address the will of 185 candidates in a constituency with 1.55 million voters from rural and semi-urban areas? Case A describes the electoral process followed by the world's largest democracy to guarantee free and fair elections. It concludes by posing several situational questions, the answers to which will determine whether the polls in Nizamabad are conducted successfully or not. Case B, which should be revealed after students have had a chance to deliberate on the challenges posed in Case A, describes the decisions and actions taken by Kumar and his team in preparation for the Nizamabad polls and the events that took place on election day and afterward.

To demonstrate how a quantitative approach to decision making can be used in the public policy domain to achieve end goals. To learn how resource allocation decisions can be made by understanding the scale of the problem, the various resource constraints, and the end goals. To discover operational innovations in the face of regulatory and technical constraints and complete the required steps. To understand the multiple steps involved in conducting elections in the Indian context.

Set in April 2017, this case centers around the digital technology dilemma facing the protagonist Dr. Vimohan, the chief intensivist of Prashant Hospital. The case describes the critical challenges afflicting the intensive care unit (ICU) of the hospital. It then follows Dr. Vimohan as he visits the Bengaluru headquarters of Cloudphysician Healthcare, a Tele-ICU provider. The visit leaves Dr. Vimohan wondering whether he can leverage the Tele-ICU solution to overcome the challenges at Prashant Hospital. He instinctively knew that he would need to use a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis to resolve this dilemma.

The case study enables critical thinking and decision-making to address the business situation. Assessing the pros and cons of a potential technology solution, examining the readiness of an organization and devising a framework for effective stakeholder and change management are some of the key concepts. Associated tools include cost-benefit analysis, net present value (NPV) analysis, force-field analysis, and change-readiness assessment, in addition to a brief discussion on SWOT analysis.

Set in 2016 in Hyderabad, India, the case follows Puvvala Yugandhar, Senior Vice President at Dr. Reddy's Laboratories (DRL), as he decides what to do about an underperforming production policy at their plants. Adopted a decade earlier, the policy, called Replenish to Consumption -Pooled (RTC-P), had not delivered the expected results. Specifically, the plants had been seeing an increase in production switchovers and creeping buffer levels for certain products, which had led to higher holding costs and lost sales for certain products. A senior consultant had suggested that DRL switch to a demand estimation-based policy called Replenish to Anticipation (RTA), which attempted to address the above concerns by segregating production capacity and updating buffer levels using demand estimates. However, Yugandhar, well aware of the challenges of changing production policies, wanted to explore a variant of RTC-P called Replenish to Consumption -Dedicated (RTC-D), which followed the same buffer update rules as RTC-P but maintained dedicated capacities for a subset of products.

By studying and solving the decision problem in the case, students should be able to better appreciate the challenges involved in making long-term operational changes. It gives them an opportunity to: (1) understand how each input might impact the final decision, and (2) how to weigh each of these inputs in arriving at the final decision.

We crafted the case study "Software Acquisition for Employee Engagement at Pilot Mountain Research " for use in Business Marketing, Buyer Behavior, or Operations Management courses in undergraduate, MBA, or Executive Education programs. The Pilot Mountain Market Research (PMMR) case study provides students with the opportunity to examine how buying decisions can be made utilizing online digital tools that are increasingly available to business-to-business (B2B) purchasing managers. To do so, we created fictitious research studies and data to realistically portray the kinds of information that are publicly available to B2B purchasing managers on the Internet today. In this case study, we introduce students to fit analysis, coding quality technical assessment, sentiment analysis, and ratings & reviews analyses. Students are challenged to integrate findings from these diverse analytical tools, combining both qualitative and quantitative data into concrete employee engagement software (EES) purchasing recommendations.

1. Evolving criteria for selecting a software package for organization-wide procurement in a B2B purchase decision context 2. Appreciate increasing digitalization of businesses 3. Understand importance of employee engagement in organizations and what an organization could do to enhance employee engagement among its workforce 4. Understand decision making processes in the context of digitalisation of businesses

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Early detection of rare and elusive endangered species using environmental DNA: a case study for the Eurasian otter and the white-clawed crayfish in northwestern Italy

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• Lorenzo Ballini   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0009-5400-2128 1 ,
• Dario Ottonello 2 ,
• Valentina Repetto 2 ,
• Chiara Natali   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0293-171X 1 ,
• Giacomo Chini 1 ,
• Livia Tolve   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0002-2626-0129 1 ,
• Claudio Ciofi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8537-8659 1 ,
• Sara Fratini   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5754-8830 1 &
• Alessio Iannucci   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7729-4412 1  

Monitoring, management and conservation of rare and elusive species often requires early detection of individuals, especially for re-introduced and endangered taxa. Environmental DNA (eDNA) approaches can enhance the detection power of traditional biomonitoring methods for low-density, newly-established populations. In this study, we used species-specific Real Time PCR TaqMan assays to assess the presence of two endangered freshwater species, the white-clawed crayfish Austropotamobius pallipes and the Eurasian otter Lutra lutra at eight sites in four river catchments in Liguria (northwestern Italy). The Eurasian otter was considered extinct in the study area since the 1980s. However, recent, although scattered sightings indicated a recolonisation by a few individuals. The white-clawed crayfish populations declined drastically and became increasingly dispersed in the western part of Liguria. Our eDNA analysis confirmed the presence of both species in some of the selected rivers and detected Eurasian otter DNA where the species was not recorded through traditional monitoring methods. This study confirms eDNA-based monitoring approaches as valuable tools to assess the presence of rare and elusive species and help implement protection plans at a local scale.

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Introduction

Biodiversity monitoring is an essential tool to understand species distribution and inform wildlife conservation strategies. The effective management of rare and elusive species often requires early detection of populations, especially for reintroduced and endangered taxa (Maxwell and Jennings 2005 ; Jerde et al. 2011 ; Deiner et al. 2021 ; Peralta et al. 2023 ). The analysis of environmental DNA (eDNA) can complement traditional biomonitoring methods resulting in a more detailed description of community composition, especially in aquatic environments (Tsuji et al. 2019 ).

Monitoring methods based on eDNA allow for early detection of populations in which individuals are either at low densities, early ontogenetic or cryptic stages. eDNA-based techniques can help identify different species from a single sample (metabarcoding eDNA) or record the presence of a species of interest (targeted eDNA). In particular, probe-based Real Time PCR is now widely used to detect presence of a target species in an eDNA sample (Taberlet et al. 2018 ; Xia et al. 2018 ; Pawlowski et al. 2020 ).

Inland waters and freshwater ecosystems are among the most threatened environments and are experiencing high rates of biodiversity decline (Dudgeon 2019 ). The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List reports that almost 22% of the known freshwater species are threatened (IUCN 2023 ; William-Subiza and Epele 2021 ). Two iconic endangered Italian native freshwater species are the Eurasian otter ( Lutra lutra Linnaeus, 1758) and the white-clawed crayfish ( Austropotamobius pallipes species complex Lereboullet, 1858).

Despite being found in a wide variety of aquatic environments in Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Eurasian otter is listed as Near-Threatened in the IUCN Red List. This species is listed as Endangered in Italy (Loy et al. 2020 ), where populations have been steadily declining since the last century due to habitat reduction and degradation (Loy 2018 ). Thanks to a number of conservation actions, otter populations are now recovering in some European countries, including southern and central Italy (Elmeros et al. 2006 ; Prigioni et al. 2007 ; Loy 2018 ; Bolinesi et al. 2019 ; Buglione et al. 2020a , b ; Gaudiano et al. 2023 ). Recently, the presence of L. lutra has also been reported in northern Italian regions (Friuli Venezia Giulia, Veneto, Trentino Alto Adige and Liguria), probably as a result of recolonisation from neighbouring countries (Righetti 2011 ; Pavanello et al. 2015 ; Malthieux 2020 ; Nadai et al. 2022 ).

The white-clawed crayfish is threatened by habitat modification, pollution, competition with invasive alien species and the onset of lethal diseases (Holdich 2003 ). Many countries, including Italy, have experienced a massive population decline over the last few decades, so that this species has been listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List since 2010 (Füreder et al. 2010 ). Italian populations of the white-clawed crayfish belong to two distinct species: A. pallipes , which occurs in the western part of Liguria, and A. italicus (including four subspecies, see Fratini et al. 2005 ), which is present in the rest of the Italian peninsula.

In this study, we used a Real Time PCR Taqman assay to assess the presence of the white-clawed crayfish and the Eurasian otter in four river catchments in Liguria (northwestern Italy). The Eurasian otter has been considered extinct in this region since the 1980s (see Prigioni et al. 2007 ). However, an isolated population was recently recorded in adjacent areas (Malthieux 2020 ). The white-clawed crayfish populations have declined drastically in numbers and have become increasingly dispersed in western Liguria. In this context, an eDNA-based monitoring approach is an ideal, non-invasive tool to detect the presence of both species which presumably occur in the area at low-densities. Our study aims at defining the current distribution range of L. lutra and A. pallipes in western Liguria and informing future management and conservation plans.

Materials and methods

Study area and sampling.

The study area included four river catchments in western Liguria (Italy): Roia-Bevera, Argentina, Nervia and Tanaro (Fig.  1 ). The Tanaro basin is located at the border of the Padano-Venetian ichthyogeographic district, while the other three catchments belong to the Tuscano-Latium ichthyogeographic zone. The Roia-Bevera basin is partially in French territory (Bianco 1990 , 1995 ). Sampling was conducted in October 2022 in eight sites, two along the Roia river (ROI1 and ROI2), two in the Bevera river (BEV1 and BEV2), and one along the Argentina (ARG2), Tanaro (TAN), Carpasina (CAR) and Nervia (NER2) rivers (Fig.  1 ). Rivers and sampling sites were selected based on occurrence of L. lutra and A. pallipes recorded during previous monitoring campaigns (see Salvidio et al. 2002 ; Bologna and Cristiani 2012 ; Capurro et al. 2015 ; Malthieux 2020 ; Ottonello pers. obs.). Moreover, the study area represents the most direct route for recolonisation by otter populations from France (Malthieux 2020 ).

Map of the study area. Environmental DNA detection results and recent observation data are shown for each river. Bullets show locations of sampling sites. White semicircles and rectangles indicate lack of detection or observations. Dark green shading shows Natura 2000 Network areas

Water samples were collected at each site in six spatial replicates randomly selected on the two banks and in the middle of the river along a 150 m long transect. Each replicate consisted of one litre of water collected using plastic jars previously sterilised with sodium hypochlorite. Water samples were filtered on-site using a portable hand vacuum-pump connected to a polypropylene flask (Thermo Fisher Scientific). We used sterile disposable filter units with nitrocellulose membrane and a pore size of 0.2 μm (Thermo Fisher Scientific). All filters were immediately preserved in absolute ethanol upon water collection and stored at -20 °C prior to DNA extraction. A jar containing one litre of DNA-free deionized sterile water was left opened at each site for two minutes. The water was then filtered on-site and used as negative field control.

DNA extraction

Environmental DNA purification was carried out in a laminar flow cabinet using sterile equipment to avoid exogeneous DNA contamination. eDNA was extracted from nitrocellulose membrane filters using the ZymoBIOMICS DNA Miniprep Kit (Zymo Research) according to the manufacturer’s guidelines, eluted in a final volume of 50 µL of sterilised water and preserved at -20 °C.

To verify that DNA extraction from water samples provided sufficient metazoan genetic material, we measured DNA concentrations using the Qubit dsDNA HS Assay Kit (Invitrogen) and amplified two universal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) metabarcode markers using PCR primers Tele02 and Vert01 (Riaz et al. 2011 ; Taberlet et al. 2018 ). Amplification reactions were performed using 1X Invitrogen Taq DNA Polymerase PCR Buffer, 1 U of Taq DNA Polymerase (Thermo Fisher Scientific), 2 mM MgCl 2 , 0.3 mM dNTPs, 0.5 µM of each primer and 1 µL of sample DNA in 25 µL total volume. The following amplification conditions were used: 5 min at 94 °C, 35 cycles of 94 °C for 30 s, 54 °C (Tele02) or 49 °C (Vert01) for 30 s, 72 °C for 1 min and a final extension step at 72 °C for 10 min. PCR products were resolved on a 1.2% agarose gel stained with GelRed Nucleic Acid Gel Stain (Biotum). DNA-free ddH 2 O and L. lutra DNA extracted from fresh biological material were included in each PCR reaction as negative and positive controls, respectively.

Real time PCR assay

Presence of target species in the eDNA samples was detected using species-specific probe-based TaqMan assays. For L. lutra , we used the assay reported by Thomsen et al. ( 2012 ) which amplifies a 80 bp long fragment of the mtDNA cytochrome b gene. For A. pallipes , we used the assay reported by Troth et al. ( 2020 ) which amplifies a 109 bp fragment of the mtDNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene. Each assay included two PCR primers and a target-specific dual labelled probe with fluorescent reporter and non-fluorescent quencher. A ROX fluorescent dye included in the Master Mix was used as an internal passive reference to normalize PCR fluorescent dye signals.

Positive controls consisted of L. lutra and A. pallipes DNA extracted from ethanol-preserved samples from the Natural History Museum of the University of Florence, Italy. For the white-clawed crayfish, we included positive controls of A. pallipes and three subspecies of A. italicu s ( A. i. carinthiacus, A. i. italicus and A. i. meridionalis ). DNA extractions were performed from muscle tissues using the PureLink Genomic DNA Mini Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific) following the manufacturer’s protocol.

Real Time PCR assays were performed on a QuantStudio 7 Flex Real-Time PCR System (Life Technologies). Ten-fold serial dilutions of positive control DNA were tested in ten replicates to assess Real Time PCR amplification efficiency and define the limit of detection (LOD, expressed as threshold cycle Ct) as reported in Bustin et al. ( 2009 ); Klymus et al. ( 2020a , b ). Amplification conditions were as follows: a Pre-Read Stage at 60 °C for 30 s, hold at 95 °C for 20 s, 55 cycles at 95 °C for 1 s and 52 °C for 20 s followed by a Post-Read Stage at 60 °C for 30 s. Amplification reactions were conducted in a total volume of 20 µL containing 1X TaqMan Fast Advanced Master Mix (Thermo Fisher Scientific), 0.5 µM of each primer, 0.25 µM TaqMan probe and 5 µL template DNA.

For each sampling site, eDNA samples, positive and negative controls were amplified in technical triplicate in the same PCR run. Negative field controls were processed as eDNA samples. A Real Time PCR replicate was recorded as positive if Ct was lower than the LOD, it had a uniform curve morphology and no amplification occurred in the negative template and field controls (Bustin et al. 2009 ; Ficetola et al. 2015 ; Klymus et al. 2020a , b ). Following the criteria proposed by Taberlet et al. ( 1996 ), Ficetola et al. ( 2015 ), Buxton et al. ( 2021 ) and Sanz et al. ( 2023 ) to avoid false positive and negative results, the presence of a species was considered as ascertained in the case of two positive amplifications out of the total of technical and spatial replicates.

Results and discussion

Environmental DNA concentrations ranged from 0.075 to 36.6 ng µL − 1 . The Tele02 and Vert01 PCR assays confirmed successful extraction of metazoan DNA from the eDNA samples for we obtained a visible band for each sample when loaded on an agarose gel. Negative PCR controls excluded the possibility of false-positive amplification due to human DNA contamination.

For both detection assays, the amplification efficiency of Real Time PCR estimated by means of calibration curves determined using serial dilutions of the positive controls was about 90% ( L. lutra : y = -3.63x + 24.05, r 2  = 0.99; A. pallipes : y = -3.5x + 25.68, r 2  = 0.97). The LOD corresponded to a Ct value of 43.7 ± 0.1 for the Eurasian otter assay and a Ct value of 43.3 ± 0.3 for the white-clawed crayfish assay. Ct values of positive Real Time PCR amplifications ranged from 37.7 to 43.5 for the otter assay and from 36.7 to 40.2 for the crayfish assay (Table  1 ).

Negative field and PCR controls produced no amplification, while PCR products of positive controls confirmed the reliability of the selected assays. For the white-clawed crayfish, we obtained a positive amplification for A. pallipes and the three tested subspecies of A. italicus . This result indicated that the sensitivity of the assay did not allow for the distinction between species and subspecies belonging to the A. pallipes species complex.

We recorded the presence of the Eurasian otter in four out of the six investigated rivers (Roia, Bevera, Argentina and Nervia). No presence of L. lutra was recorded in the Tanaro and Carpasina rivers. We detected the presence of the white-clawed crayfish in all river streams but the Tanaro and Roia rivers (Fig.  1 ; Table  1 ).

Historical sightings of the Eurasian otter in the western part of Liguria suggested the presence of few individuals in the high valley of the Tanaro, Argentina, Nervia, Roia and Bevera rivers (Balletto 1977 ; Vigna Taglianti and Bologna 1982 ). The species was considered extinct in the area ever since (Prigioni et al. 2007 ; Bologna and Cristiani 2012 ). Traces of L. lutra have been recently recorded upstream of BEV1-2 and ROI1-2 sampling sites in the Roia and Bevera rivers, indicating the presence of a relict population (Malthieux 2020 ). Our eDNA analysis confirmed the presence of the Eurasian otter on the Italian side of these rivers and detected the presence of L. lutra in adjacent basins where it was not previously observed (i.e., the Argentina and Nervia rivers).

The presence of the white-clawed crayfish was reported in five out of the six rivers included in this study, that is the Bevera, Nervia, Argentina, Carpasina (Capurro et al. 2015 ) and Tanaro (Salvidio et al. 2002 ). Recent observations, however, confirmed the presence of A. pallipes in all the above rivers but the Tanaro. Our eDNA approach confirmed recent surveys as we recorded the occurrence of the white-clawed crayfish only in BEV1, NER2, CAR and ARG2.

The majority of sites where we detected the presence of our target species are in close proximity to (NER2, ARG2, CAR) or mark the boundaries (BEV1-2) of Natura 2000 sites (Fig.  1 ). None of these Natura 2000 sites report L. lutra in their Standard Data Forms (SDF), while A. pallipes is only listed in the SDF of the protected areas established in the upper parts of the Carpasina and Argentina rivers.

This study confirms that eDNA-based monitoring approaches enhance the detection power of traditional biomonitoring surveys and are valuable tools to inform efficient management and protection schemes for threatened species (Pascher et al. 2022 ). Further investigations are needed to define in detail the distribution range of the target species in western Italy and reconstruct the recolonization routes of L. lutra of the Italian watersheds. Moreover, additional studies are needed to understand whether the presence of the Eurasian otter in western Italy is occasional or the species is reestablishing well-structured and viable populations.

Data availability

The data generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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This work was supported by the Liguria Regional Authority (Italy) through grant number G55J19000450007 of the Biodiv’Connect programme of the European Interreg Biodiv’ALP France-Italy ALCOTRA 2014–2020 project. The authors acknowledge the support by the Italian Ministry of University and Research through the National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), part of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan, Mission 4, Component 2, Investment 1.4, Project CN00000033. The authors are also grateful to Stefano Cannicci for his useful comments to the manuscript.

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L.B., S.F. and A.I. wrote the manuscript. S.F, C.C., D.O., V.R., and A.I. conceptualized and designed the study. L.B., L.T. and G.C. collected the samples. L.B., C.N., A.I and S.F. performed lab work and provided lab support. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Ballini, L., Ottonello, D., Repetto, V. et al. Early detection of rare and elusive endangered species using environmental DNA: a case study for the Eurasian otter and the white-clawed crayfish in northwestern Italy. Conserv Genet (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-024-01619-5

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-024-01619-5

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