what are the three kinds of books for study

3.3 Effective Reading Strategies

Questions to Consider:

• What methods can you incorporate into your routine to allow adequate time for reading?
• What are the benefits and approaches to active and critical reading?
• Do your courses or major have specific reading requirements?

Allowing Adequate Time for Reading

You should determine the reading requirements and expectations for every class very early in the semester. You also need to understand why you are reading the particular text you are assigned. Do you need to read closely for minute details that determine cause and effect? Or is your instructor asking you to skim several sources so you become more familiar with the topic? Knowing this reasoning will help you decide your timing, what notes to take, and how best to undertake the reading assignment.

Depending on the makeup of your schedule, you may end up reading both primary sources—such as legal documents, historic letters, or diaries—as well as textbooks, articles, and secondary sources, such as summaries or argumentative essays that use primary sources to stake a claim. You may also need to read current journalistic texts to stay up to date in local or global affairs. A realistic approach to scheduling your time to allow you to read and review all the reading you have for the semester will help you accomplish what can sometimes seem like an overwhelming task.

When you allow adequate time in your hectic schedule for reading, you are investing in your own success. Reading isn’t a magic pill, but it may seem like it when you consider all the benefits people reap from this ordinary practice. Famous successful people throughout history have been voracious readers. In fact, former U.S. president Harry Truman once said, “Not all readers are leaders, but all leaders are readers.” Writer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, inventor, and also former U.S. president Thomas Jefferson claimed “I cannot live without books” at a time when keeping and reading books was an expensive pastime. Knowing what it meant to be kept from the joys of reading, 19th-century abolitionist Frederick Douglass said, “Once you learn to read, you will be forever free.” And finally, George R. R. Martin, the prolific author of the wildly successful Game of Thrones empire, declared, “A reader lives a thousand lives before he dies . . . The man who never reads lives only one.”

You can make time for reading in a number of ways that include determining your usual reading pace and speed, scheduling active reading sessions, and practicing recursive reading strategies.

Determining Reading Speed and Pacing

To determine your reading speed, select a section of text—passages in a textbook or pages in a novel. Time yourself reading that material for exactly 5 minutes, and note how much reading you accomplished in those 5 minutes. Multiply the amount of reading you accomplished in 5 minutes by 12 to determine your average reading pace (5 times 12 equals the 60 minutes of an hour). Of course, your reading pace will be different and take longer if you are taking notes while you read, but this calculation of reading pace gives you a good way to estimate your reading speed that you can adapt to other forms of reading.

In the table above, you can see three students with different reading speeds. So, for instance, if Marta was able to read 4 pages of a dense novel for her English class in 5 minutes, she should be able to read about 48 pages in one hour. Knowing this, Marta can accurately determine how much time she needs to devote to finishing the novel within a set amount of time, instead of just guessing. If the novel Marta is reading is 497 pages, then Marta would take the total page count (497) and divide that by her hourly reading rate (48 pages/hour) to determine that she needs about 10 to 11 hours overall. To finish the novel spread out over two weeks, Marta needs to read a little under an hour a day to accomplish this goal.

Calculating your reading rate in this manner does not take into account days where you’re too distracted and you have to reread passages or days when you just aren’t in the mood to read. And your reading rate will likely vary depending on how dense the content you’re reading is (e.g., a complex textbook vs. a comic book). Your pace may slow down somewhat if you are not very interested in what the text is about. What this method will help you do is be realistic about your reading time as opposed to waging a guess based on nothing and then becoming worried when you have far more reading to finish than the time available.

Chapter 2 , “ Managing Your Time and Priorities ,” offers more detail on how best to determine your speed from one type of reading to the next so you are better able to schedule your reading.

Scheduling Set Times for Active Reading

Active reading takes longer than reading through passages without stopping. You may not need to read your latest sci-fi series actively while you’re lounging on the beach, but many other reading situations demand more attention from you. Active reading is particularly important for college courses. You are a scholar actively engaging with the text by posing questions, seeking answers, and clarifying any confusing elements. Plan to spend at least twice as long to read actively than to read passages without taking notes or otherwise marking select elements of the text.

To determine the time you need for active reading, use the same calculations you use to determine your traditional reading speed and double it. Remember that you need to determine your reading pace for all the classes you have in a particular semester and multiply your speed by the number of classes you have that require different types of reading. The table below shows the differences in time needed between reading quickly without taking notes and reading actively.

Practicing Recursive Reading Strategies

One fact about reading for college courses that may become frustrating is that, in a way, it never ends. For all the reading you do, you end up doing even more rereading. It may be the same content, but you may be reading the passage more than once to detect the emphasis the writer places on one aspect of the topic or how frequently the writer dismisses a significant counterargument. This rereading is called recursive reading.

For most of what you read at the college level, you are trying to make sense of the text for a specific purpose—not just because the topic interests or entertains you. You need your full attention to decipher everything that’s going on in complex reading material—and you even need to be considering what the writer of the piece may not be including and why. This is why reading for comprehension is recursive.

Specifically, this boils down to seeing reading not as a formula but as a process that is far more circular than linear. You may read a selection from beginning to end, which is an excellent starting point, but for comprehension, you’ll need to go back and reread passages to determine meaning and make connections between the reading and the bigger learning environment that led you to the selection—that may be a single course or a program in your college, or it may be the larger discipline, such as all biologists or the community of scholars studying beach erosion.

People often say writing is rewriting. For college courses, reading is rereading, but rereading with the intention of improving comprehension and taking notes.

Strong readers engage in numerous steps, sometimes combining more than one step simultaneously, but knowing the steps nonetheless. They include, not always in this order:

• bringing any prior knowledge about the topic to the reading session,
• asking yourself pertinent questions, both orally and in writing, about the content you are reading,
• inferring and/or implying information from what you read,
• learning unfamiliar discipline-specific terms,
• evaluating what you are reading, and eventually,
• applying what you’re reading to other learning and life situations you encounter.

Let’s break these steps into manageable chunks, because you are actually doing quite a lot when you read.

Accessing Prior Knowledge

When you read, you naturally think of anything else you may know about the topic, but when you read deliberately and actively, you make yourself more aware of accessing this prior knowledge. Have you ever watched a documentary about this topic? Did you study some aspect of it in another class? Do you have a hobby that is somehow connected to this material? All of this thinking will help you make sense of what you are reading.

Application

Imagine that you were given a chapter to read in your American history class about the Gettysburg Address, now write down what you already know about this historic document. How might thinking through this prior knowledge help you better understand the text?

Asking Questions

Humans are naturally curious beings. As you read actively, you should be asking questions about the topic you are reading. Don’t just say the questions in your mind; write them down. You may ask: Why is this topic important? What is the relevance of this topic currently? Was this topic important a long time ago but irrelevant now? Why did my professor assign this reading?

You need a place where you can actually write down these questions; a separate page in your notes is a good place to begin. If you are taking notes on your computer, start a new document and write down the questions. Leave some room to answer the questions when you begin and again after you read.

Inferring and Implying

When you read, you can take the information on the page and infer , or conclude responses to related challenges from evidence or from your own reasoning. A student will likely be able to infer what material the professor will include on an exam by taking good notes throughout the classes leading up to the test.

Writers may imply information without directly stating a fact for a variety of reasons. Sometimes a writer may not want to come out explicitly and state a bias, but may imply or hint at his or her preference for one political party or another. You have to read carefully to find implications because they are indirect, but watching for them will help you comprehend the whole meaning of a passage.

Learning Vocabulary

Vocabulary specific to certain disciplines helps practitioners in that field engage and communicate with each other. Few people beyond undertakers and archeologists likely use the term sarcophagus in everyday communications, but for those disciplines, it is a meaningful distinction. Looking at the example, you can use context clues to figure out the meaning of the term sarcophagus because it is something undertakers and/or archeologists would recognize. At the very least, you can guess that it has something to do with death. As a potential professional in the field you’re studying, you need to know the lingo. You may already have a system in place to learn discipline-specific vocabulary, so use what you know works for you. Two strong strategies are to look up words in a dictionary (online or hard copy) to ensure you have the exact meaning for your discipline and to keep a dedicated list of words you see often in your reading. You can list the words with a short definition so you have a quick reference guide to help you learn the vocabulary.

Intelligent people always question and evaluate. This doesn’t mean they don’t trust others; they just need verification of facts to understand a topic well. It doesn’t make sense to learn incomplete or incorrect information about a subject just because you didn’t take the time to evaluate all the sources at your disposal. When early explorers were afraid to sail the world for fear of falling off the edge, they weren’t stupid; they just didn’t have all the necessary data to evaluate the situation.

When you evaluate a text, you are seeking to understand the presented topic. Depending on how long the text is, you will perform a number of steps and repeat many of these steps to evaluate all the elements the author presents. When you evaluate a text, you need to do the following:

• Scan the title and all headings.
• Read through the entire passage fully.
• Question what main point the author is making.
• Decide who the audience is.
• Identify what evidence/support the author uses.
• Consider if the author presents a balanced perspective on the main point.
• Recognize if the author introduced any biases in the text.

When you go through a text looking for each of these elements, you need to go beyond just answering the surface question; for instance, the audience may be a specific field of scientists, but could anyone else understand the text with some explanation? Why would that be important?

Analysis Question

Think of an article you need to read for a class. Take the steps above on how to evaluate a text, and apply the steps to the article. When you accomplish the task in each step, ask yourself and take notes to answer the question: Why is this important? For example, when you read the title, does that give you any additional information that will help you comprehend the text? If the text were written for a different audience, what might the author need to change to accommodate that group? How does an author’s bias distort an argument? This deep evaluation allows you to fully understand the main ideas and place the text in context with other material on the same subject, with current events, and within the discipline.

When you learn something new, it always connects to other knowledge you already have. One challenge we have is applying new information. It may be interesting to know the distance to the moon, but how do we apply it to something we need to do? If your biology instructor asked you to list several challenges of colonizing Mars and you do not know much about that planet’s exploration, you may be able to use your knowledge of how far Earth is from the moon to apply it to the new task. You may have to read several other texts in addition to reading graphs and charts to find this information.

That was the challenge the early space explorers faced along with myriad unknowns before space travel was a more regular occurrence. They had to take what they already knew and could study and read about and apply it to an unknown situation. These explorers wrote down their challenges, failures, and successes, and now scientists read those texts as a part of the ever-growing body of text about space travel. Application is a sophisticated level of thinking that helps turn theory into practice and challenges into successes.

Preparing to Read for Specific Disciplines in College

Different disciplines in college may have specific expectations, but you can depend on all subjects asking you to read to some degree. In this college reading requirement, you can succeed by learning to read actively, researching the topic and author, and recognizing how your own preconceived notions affect your reading. Reading for college isn’t the same as reading for pleasure or even just reading to learn something on your own because you are casually interested.

In college courses, your instructor may ask you to read articles, chapters, books, or primary sources (those original documents about which we write and study, such as letters between historic figures or the Declaration of Independence). Your instructor may want you to have a general background on a topic before you dive into that subject in class, so that you know the history of a topic, can start thinking about it, and can engage in a class discussion with more than a passing knowledge of the issue.

If you are about to participate in an in-depth six-week consideration of the U.S. Constitution but have never read it or anything written about it, you will have a hard time looking at anything in detail or understanding how and why it is significant. As you can imagine, a great deal has been written about the Constitution by scholars and citizens since the late 1700s when it was first put to paper (that’s how they did it then). While the actual document isn’t that long (about 12–15 pages depending on how it is presented), learning the details on how it came about, who was involved, and why it was and still is a significant document would take a considerable amount of time to read and digest. So, how do you do it all? Especially when you may have an instructor who drops hints that you may also love to read a historic novel covering the same time period . . . in your spare time , not required, of course! It can be daunting, especially if you are taking more than one course that has time-consuming reading lists. With a few strategic techniques, you can manage it all, but know that you must have a plan and schedule your required reading so you are also able to pick up that recommended historic novel—it may give you an entirely new perspective on the issue.

Strategies for Reading in College Disciplines

No universal law exists for how much reading instructors and institutions expect college students to undertake for various disciplines. Suffice it to say, it’s a LOT.

For most students, it is the volume of reading that catches them most off guard when they begin their college careers. A full course load might require 10–15 hours of reading per week, some of that covering content that will be more difficult than the reading for other courses.

You cannot possibly read word-for-word every single document you need to read for all your classes. That doesn’t mean you give up or decide to only read for your favorite classes or concoct a scheme to read 17 percent for each class and see how that works for you. You need to learn to skim, annotate, and take notes. All of these techniques will help you comprehend more of what you read, which is why we read in the first place. We’ll talk more later about annotating and note-taking, but for now consider what you know about skimming as opposed to active reading.

Skimming is not just glancing over the words on a page (or screen) to see if any of it sticks. Effective skimming allows you to take in the major points of a passage without the need for a time-consuming reading session that involves your active use of notations and annotations. Often you will need to engage in that painstaking level of active reading, but skimming is the first step—not an alternative to deep reading. The fact remains that neither do you need to read everything nor could you possibly accomplish that given your limited time. So learn this valuable skill of skimming as an accompaniment to your overall study tool kit, and with practice and experience, you will fully understand how valuable it is.

When you skim, look for guides to your understanding: headings, definitions, pull quotes, tables, and context clues. Textbooks are often helpful for skimming—they may already have made some of these skimming guides in bold or a different color, and chapters often follow a predictable outline. Some even provide an overview and summary for sections or chapters. Use whatever you can get, but don’t stop there. In textbooks that have some reading guides, or especially in texts that do not, look for introductory words such as First or The purpose of this article  . . . or summary words such as In conclusion  . . . or Finally . These guides will help you read only those sentences or paragraphs that will give you the overall meaning or gist of a passage or book.

Now move to the meat of the passage. You want to take in the reading as a whole. For a book, look at the titles of each chapter if available. Read each chapter’s introductory paragraph and determine why the writer chose this particular order. Depending on what you’re reading, the chapters may be only informational, but often you’re looking for a specific argument. What position is the writer claiming? What support, counterarguments, and conclusions is the writer presenting?

Don’t think of skimming as a way to buzz through a boring reading assignment. It is a skill you should master so you can engage, at various levels, with all the reading you need to accomplish in college. End your skimming session with a few notes—terms to look up, questions you still have, and an overall summary. And recognize that you likely will return to that book or article for a more thorough reading if the material is useful.

Active Reading Strategies

Active reading differs significantly from skimming or reading for pleasure. You can think of active reading as a sort of conversation between you and the text (maybe between you and the author, but you don’t want to get the author’s personality too involved in this metaphor because that may skew your engagement with the text).

When you sit down to determine what your different classes expect you to read and you create a reading schedule to ensure you complete all the reading, think about when you should read the material strategically, not just how to get it all done . You should read textbook chapters and other reading assignments before you go into a lecture about that information. Don’t wait to see how the lecture goes before you read the material, or you may not understand the information in the lecture. Reading before class helps you put ideas together between your reading and the information you hear and discuss in class.

Different disciplines naturally have different types of texts, and you need to take this into account when you schedule your time for reading class material. For example, you may look at a poem for your world literature class and assume that it will not take you long to read because it is relatively short compared to the dense textbook you have for your economics class. But reading and understanding a poem can take a considerable amount of time when you realize you may need to stop numerous times to review the separate word meanings and how the words form images and connections throughout the poem.

The SQ3R Reading Strategy

You may have heard of the SQ3R method for active reading in your early education. This valuable technique is perfect for college reading. The title stands for S urvey, Q uestion, R ead, R ecite, R eview, and you can use the steps on virtually any assigned passage. Designed by Francis Pleasant Robinson in his 1961 book Effective Study, the active reading strategy gives readers a systematic way to work through any reading material.

Survey is similar to skimming. You look for clues to meaning by reading the titles, headings, introductions, summary, captions for graphics, and keywords. You can survey almost anything connected to the reading selection, including the copyright information, the date of the journal article, or the names and qualifications of the author(s). In this step, you decide what the general meaning is for the reading selection.

Question is your creation of questions to seek the main ideas, support, examples, and conclusions of the reading selection. Ask yourself these questions separately. Try to create valid questions about what you are about to read that have come into your mind as you engaged in the Survey step. Try turning the headings of the sections in the chapter into questions. Next, how does what you’re reading relate to you, your school, your community, and the world?

Read is when you actually read the passage. Try to find the answers to questions you developed in the previous step. Decide how much you are reading in chunks, either by paragraph for more complex readings or by section or even by an entire chapter. When you finish reading the selection, stop to make notes. Answer the questions by writing a note in the margin or other white space of the text.

You may also carefully underline or highlight text in addition to your notes. Use caution here that you don’t try to rush this step by haphazardly circling terms or the other extreme of underlining huge chunks of text. Don’t over-mark. You aren’t likely to remember what these cryptic marks mean later when you come back to use this active reading session to study. The text is the source of information—your marks and notes are just a way to organize and make sense of that information.

Recite means to speak out loud. By reciting, you are engaging other senses to remember the material—you read it (visual) and you said it (auditory). Stop reading momentarily in the step to answer your questions or clarify confusing sentences or paragraphs. You can recite a summary of what the text means to you. If you are not in a place where you can verbalize, such as a library or classroom, you can accomplish this step adequately by  saying  it in your head; however, to get the biggest bang for your buck, try to find a place where you can speak aloud. You may even want to try explaining the content to a friend.

Review is a recap. Go back over what you read and add more notes, ensuring you have captured the main points of the passage, identified the supporting evidence and examples, and understood the overall meaning. You may need to repeat some or all of the SQR3 steps during your review depending on the length and complexity of the material. Before you end your active reading session, write a short (no more than one page is optimal) summary of the text you read.

Reading Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary sources are original documents we study and from which we glean information; primary sources include letters, first editions of books, legal documents, and a variety of other texts. When scholars look at these documents to understand a period in history or a scientific challenge and then write about their findings, the scholar’s article is considered a secondary source. Readers have to keep several factors in mind when reading both primary and secondary sources.

Primary sources may contain dated material we now know is inaccurate. It may contain personal beliefs and biases the original writer didn’t intend to be openly published, and it may even present fanciful or creative ideas that do not support current knowledge. Readers can still gain great insight from primary sources, but readers need to understand the context from which the writer of the primary source wrote the text.

Likewise, secondary sources are inevitably another person’s perspective on the primary source, so a reader of secondary sources must also be aware of potential biases or preferences the secondary source writer inserts in the writing that may persuade an incautious reader to interpret the primary source in a particular manner.

For example, if you were to read a secondary source that is examining the U.S. Declaration of Independence (the primary source), you would have a much clearer idea of how the secondary source scholar presented the information from the primary source if you also read the Declaration for yourself instead of trusting the other writer’s interpretation. Most scholars are honest in writing secondary sources, but you as a reader of the source are trusting the writer to present a balanced perspective of the primary source. When possible, you should attempt to read a primary source in conjunction with the secondary source. The Internet helps immensely with this practice.

Researching Topic and Author

During your preview stage, sometimes called pre-reading, you can easily pick up on information from various sources that may help you understand the material you’re reading more fully or place it in context with other important works in the discipline. If your selection is a book, flip it over or turn to the back pages and look for an author’s biography or note from the author. See if the book itself contains any other information about the author or the subject matter.

The main things you need to recall from your reading in college are the topics covered and how the information fits into the discipline. You can find these parts throughout the textbook chapter in the form of headings in larger and bold font, summary lists, and important quotations pulled out of the narrative. Use these features as you read to help you determine what the most important ideas are.

Remember, many books use quotations about the book or author as testimonials in a marketing approach to sell more books, so these may not be the most reliable sources of unbiased opinions, but it’s a start. Sometimes you can find a list of other books the author has written near the front of a book. Do you recognize any of the other titles? Can you do an Internet search for the name of the book or author? Go beyond the search results that want you to buy the book and see if you can glean any other relevant information about the author or the reading selection. Beyond a standard Internet search, try the library article database. These are more relevant to academic disciplines and contain resources you typically will not find in a standard search engine. If you are unfamiliar with how to use the library database, ask a reference librarian on campus. They are often underused resources that can point you in the right direction.

Understanding Your Own Preset Ideas on a Topic

Consider this scenario: Laura really enjoys learning about environmental issues. She has read many books and watched numerous televised documentaries on this topic and actively seeks out additional information on the environment. While Laura’s interest can help her understand a new reading encounter about the environment, Laura also has to be aware that with this interest, she brings forward her preset ideas and biases about the topic. Sometimes these prejudices against other ideas relate to religion or nationality or even just tradition. Without evidence, thinking the way we always have is not a good enough reason; evidence can change, and at the very least it needs honest review and assessment to determine its validity. Ironically, we may not want to learn new ideas because that may mean we would have to give up old ideas we have already mastered, which can be a daunting prospect.

With every reading situation about the environment, Laura needs to remain open-minded about what she is about to read and pay careful attention if she begins to ignore certain parts of the text because of her preconceived notions. Learning new information can be very difficult if you balk at ideas that are different from what you’ve always thought. You may have to force yourself to listen to a different viewpoint multiple times to make sure you are not closing your mind to a viable solution your mindset does not currently allow.

Can you think of times you have struggled reading college content for a course? Which of these strategies might have helped you understand the content? Why do you think those strategies would work?

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• Book title: College Success Concise
• Publication date: Apr 19, 2023
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/college-success-concise/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/college-success-concise/pages/3-3-effective-reading-strategies

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7.3: Text- Types of College Reading Materials

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As a college student, you will eventually choose a major or focus of study. In your first year or so, though, you’ll probably have to complete “core” or required classes in different subjects. For example, even if you plan to major in English, you may still have to take at least one science, history, and math class. These different academic disciplines (and the instructors who teach them) can vary greatly in terms of the materials that students are assigned to read. Not all college reading is the same. So, what types can you expect to encounter?

Probably the most familiar reading material in college is the  textbook . These are academic books, usually focused on one discipline, and their primary purpose is to educate readers on a particular subject—”Principles of Algebra,” for example, or “Introduction to Business.” It’s not uncommon for instructors to use one textbook as the primary text for an entire course. Instructors typically assign chapters as readings and may include any word problems or questions in the textbook, too.

Instructors may also assign  academic articles or news articles . Academic articles are written by people who specialize in a particular field or subject, while news articles may be from recent newspapers and magazines. For example, in a science class, you may be asked to read an academic article on the benefits of rainforest preservation, whereas in a government class, you may be asked to read an article summarizing a recent presidential debate. Instructors may have you read the articles online or they may distribute copies in class or electronically.

The chief difference between news and academic articles is the intended audience of the publication. News articles are mass media: They are written for a broad audience, and they are published in magazines and newspapers that are generally available for purchase at grocery stores or bookstores. They may also be available online. Academic articles, on the other hand, are usually published in scholarly journals with fairly small circulations.  While you won’t be able to purchase individual journal issues from Barnes and Noble, public and school libraries do make these journal issues and individual articles available.  It’s common to access academic articles through online databases hosted by libraries.

Literature and Nonfiction Books

Instructors use literature  and nonfiction books in their classes to teach students about different genres, events, time periods, and perspectives. For example, a history instructor might ask you to read the diary of a girl who lived during the Great Depression so you can learn what life was like back then. In an English class, your instructor might assign a series of short stories written during the 1960s by different American authors, so you can compare styles and thematic concerns.

Literature includes short stories, novels or novellas, graphic novels, drama, and poetry. Nonfiction works include creative nonfiction—narrative stories told from real life—as well as history, biography, and reference materials. Textbooks and scholarly articles are specific types of nonfiction; often their purpose is to instruct, whereas other forms of nonfiction be written to inform, to persuade, or to entertain.

• College Success. Authored by : Jolene Carr. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
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The 7 Best Study Methods for All Types of Students

These are seven effective study methods and techniques for students looking to optimize their learning habits.

• By Sander Tamm
• Jan 10, 2023

E-student.org is supported by our community of learners. When you visit links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission.

“You must not fool yourself, and you are the easiest person to fool.” Richard Feynman

Choosing the correct study method is a crucial part of the learning process that students too often skip over. Picking the best study method for the situation can help students reach their full potential, while a poorly chosen study technique will kill any real progress, no matter how hard the student tries to study.

If you’re reading this article, you’re likely the exception, but the reality is that most students rely on ineffective study strategies. Researchers have found that between 83.6%  and  84%  of students rely on rereading: a study method that provides  minimal benefits .

There are far superior study methods out there than rereading. Methods that have been developed and researched by the world’s top learning scientists. Yet, surprisingly few students have ever heard of them. That is why utilizing them effectively will give you not only an edge but an entire leg up on the competition.

These are the seven best study methods all students should know about:

Best Study Methods

Spaced repetition.

Spaced repetition , sometimes called spaced practice, interleaved practice, or spaced retrieval, is a study method that involves separating your study sessions into spaced intervals. It’s a simple concept but a game-changer to most students because of how powerful it is.

To demonstrate how spaced repetition works, let’s bring a real-life example. Let’s say you have an exam coming up in 36 days, and your first study session begins today. In this situation, a well-optimized interval might be:

• Session 1: Day 1
• Session 2: Day 7
• Session 3: Day 16
• Session 4: Day 35
• Exam Date: Day 36

In a nutshell, it’s the opposite of cramming and all-nighters. Rather than concentrating all studying into a small time frame, this method requires you to space out your studying by reviewing and recalling information at optimal intervals until the material has been memorized.

In the 21st century, this technique has gathered increasing popularity, and it’s not without reason. Spaced repetition manages to combine all the existing knowledge we have on human memory, and it uses that knowledge to create optimized algorithms for studying. One of the most popular examples of spaced repetition algorithms is Anki , based on another popular algorithm, SuperMemo .

For example, there is no better study method for medical students than Anki-based flashcard decks. There are entire online communities surrounding medical school Anki. You can get a small glimpse of that by heading over to r/medicalschoolanki .

There, you’ll find a breadth of different medical school Anki decks to choose from, such as:

• Pepper deck
• Lightyear deck
• UWorld deck
• Premed95 deck

But, the power of spaced repetition is not at all only applicable to medical students. Anyone trying to become a better and more efficient learner can benefit from spaced repetition. Spaced repetition is used in conjunction with other study methods, and it’s especially powerful when combined with the following study method we’ll discuss: active recall.

Active Recall

Active recall , sometimes called retrieval practice or practice testing, is a study technique involving actively recalling information (rather than just reading or re-reading it) by testing yourself repeatedly. Most students dread the word “test” for good reasons. After all, tests and exams can be very stressful because they are usually the main point of measure for your academic success.

However, active recall teaches us to look at testing from another angle. Not only should we learn for tests, but we should also learn by testing. Through flashcards, self-generated questions, and practice tests, this study method uses self-testing to help your brain memorize, retain, and retrieve information more efficiently.

One study found that students who conducted only one practice test before an exam got  17%  better results right after. Two more studies conducted in  2005  and  2012 , plus a  2017 meta-analysis , yielded similar results, finding that students who used active recall and self-testing outperformed students who did not.

If you’re practicing for an upcoming exam, there’s no better study method than active recall. By using active recall, you’re essentially testing yourself dozens of times over. If you conduct these practice tests over a long period of time through spaced repetition, you’ll be able to ace any exam without cramming.

Keep in mind, though, that while very effective, active recall is also one of the most tiring study techniques on this list. It requires strong mental focus, deep concentration, and intense mental stamina. Active recall is cognitively demanding, so don’t expect to breeze through your learning materials with this method.

Next, I’ll cover my favorite time management strategy for students: the Pomodoro method.

Pomodoro Study Method

The  Pomodoro study method is a time-management technique that uses a timer to break down your studying into 25-minute (or 45-minute) increments, called Pomodoro sessions. Then, after each session, you’ll take a 5-minute (or 15-minute) break, during which you entirely distance yourself from the study topic. And after completing four such sessions, you’ll take a more extended 15-to-30-minute break.

To try the Pomodoro technique without installing any software or buying a timer, I recommend you go to YouTube. YouTube is full of Pomodoro-based “study with me” videos from channels such as TheStrive Studies ,  Ali Abdaal , and  MDprospect . Many of them include music, though, so if you’re distracted by music while studying, you might benefit from a purpose-built Pomodoro application such as TomatoTimer  or  RescueTime .

There are various benefits to using the Pomodoro method: it’s a simple and straightforward technique, it forces you to map out your daily tasks and activities, allows for easy tracking of the amount of time spent on each task, and it provides short bursts of concentrated work together with resting periods.

But, it’s also worth noting that the scientific evidence behind the Pomodoro method is mostly conjectural as there is little scientific research on its effectiveness. And another drawback of the Pomodoro study technique is that it’s not ideal for tasks that require prolonged, uninterrupted focusing. For these kinds of tasks, I recommend that you look into the closely related Flowtime method instead.

Despite that, though, I use the Pomodoro method on a daily basis myself, and it has become an integral and irreplaceable part of my workflow.

Feynman Technique

The  Feynman Technique  is a flexible, easy-to-use, and effective study technique developed by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman. It is based on a simple idea: the best way to learn any topic is by teaching it to a sixth-grade child.

While this concept is not as advanced as the super-optimized spaced repetition algorithms I covered earlier, it’s still a method that continues to be relevant nearly a century after its creation.

The Feynman Technique is a powerful learning tool that requires learners to step out of their comfort zone by breaking down even the most complex topics into easily digestible chunks. Digestible enough for the average sixth-grade child.

This may seem like an easy task at first. After all, how difficult could it be to explain something to a child? In practice, it can be very difficult because you have to simplify and explain everything in an age-appropriate manner. When you start using the method, you’ll quickly realize that unless you have fully mastered the topic, meeting a child at their level of understanding is not easy.

To explain something clearly, you need to define all unfamiliar terms, generate straightforward explanations for complex ideas, understand connections between different topics and sub-topics, and articulate what is learned clearly and concisely. The Feynman Technique forces you to learn more deeply and think critically about what you are learning, and that is also why it’s a compelling learning method.

Leitner System

The  Leitner System is a simple and effective study method that uses a flashcard-based learning strategy to maximize memorization. It was developed by Sebastian Leitner back in 1972, and it was a source of inspiration to many of the newer flashcard-based methods that succeeded it, such as Anki.

To use the method, you’ll first need to create flashcards. On the front of the cards, you’ll write the questions, and on the back, the answers. Then, once you have your flashcards ready, get three “Leitner boxes” big enough to hold all the cards you’ve created. Let’s name them Box 1, 2, and 3.

Now, you’re all set to start studying with your flashcards. In the beginning, you’ll place all cards in Box 1. Take a card from Box 1 and try to retrieve the answer from your memory. If you recall the answer, put it in Box 2. If not, keep it in Box 1. Then, you’ll repeat this until you’ve reviewed all the cards in Box 1 at least once. After that, you’ll start reviewing each box of cards based on time intervals.

Here’s an animation that shows how the Leitner System works:

Besides card placement, another important detail of the system is scheduling. Every box has a set review frequency, with Box 1 being reviewed the most frequently as it contains all the most difficult-to-learn flashcards. Box 3, on the other hand, will contain the cards you’ve already recalled correctly, which is why it does not need to be reviewed as frequently.

If you’ve never heard of the Leitner system, you might be surprised to hear that some of the world’s biggest learning platforms, such as Duolingo, use a variation to teach hundreds of millions of students. It’s particularly effective at language learning due to the ease of creating translation-based flashcards.

While I love the Leitner System for its simplicity, I don’t use it often anymore due to the lengthy setup process, and other flashcard study methods, such as Anki, tend to be more time-efficient. But, if you prefer physical flashcards over virtual ones, you should consider using the Leitner system. It’s a beautiful study technique that has stood the test of time.

PQ4R Study Method

The PQ4R is a study method developed by researchers Thomas and Robinson in 1972 – the same year as the Leitner System was conceived. PQ4R stands for the steps used for learning something new: Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review. It’s commonly used to improve reading comprehension and is an essential method for students with reading disabilities.

However, the usefulness of PQ4R is not restricted to students with reading disabilities. The same six steps can be taken by any student trying to understand better what they’re reading. Improving reading comprehension is a worthy goal for any student, and if you need to read through a massive textbook for an exam, the PQ4R method offers a practical framework. It will allow you to understand all the passages of the text better and help you retain the information better.

By improving our reading comprehension, we can better synthesize information and interpret text. However, we must be careful not to let this strategy consume too much of our time in study sessions. Many modern learning scientists consider reading a passive and ineffective study strategy, and it’s best to rely on other methods when you can.

While I don’t use this study method as frequently as most other methods on this list, I still consider it an important strategy in my skill set. Whenever I need to extract the most critical details from a large textbook, I bring out the PQ4R to help me get through the information quicker while boosting memorization and retention. The PQ4R is a good study method to have ready, but it’s not something you should view as your primary strategy.

SQ3R Study Method

The SQ3R study method was developed by Francis P. Robinson in  1946  and is the predecessor of the PQ4R method. It’s a time-proven study technique that can be adapted to virtually any subject. The method’s name stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review and it can be used to study anything quicker, better, and in a more structured way than conventional methods.

While groundbreaking for its time, the SQ3R study method has the same drawbacks as the newer PQ4R method. For one, it’s mainly used for improving reading comprehension, and reading is not considered an effective study strategy anymore. Another problem the method faces is that it lacks the “reflection” component that the newer PQ4R study method brings to the table.

In addition, three of the five steps of this method involve a passive approach (surveying, reading, and reviewing) rather than an active one. Modern learning theories suggest active retrieval is far better for information retention than passive reading. Thus, I recommend using this study method only when you don’t have the time to use a more robust method, such as spaced repetition.

SQ3R is best used when you have limited time to study, and your primary source of information comes from a textbook. In such cases, the technique can be very helpful for summarizing the key points written in the source material.

Now, it’s time to start wrapping up this article.

In conclusion, there are many excellent study methods you have to choose from as a student in the 21st century. The best one for you will depend on your learning style, the material you are studying, and how much free time you have. When possible, I recommend you study using a combination of spaced repetition, active recall, and the Pomodoro method. But the other strategies listed here certainly have their uses as well. Above all, try to be flexible and keep an open mind. In doing so, you’ll be able to maximize your learning potential.

Sander Tamm

The 13 most effective note-taking methods.

These are efficient note-taking methods that anyone can pick up and use to take better notes.

Robin Arzón’s MasterClass Review: Mental Strength

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How to Plan an AWESOME Book Study!

May 3, 2022 by Kasey Bell

So I decided to put this post together, How to Plan an Awesome Book Study, to help guide you along the way.

I have been a part of what seems like hundreds of mandated book studies that simply fall flat.

Some books were great, some were not. Some conversations were great, others were BOR—ING.

Some studies changed my mindset and/or my practice, some were not worth the ink on the paper.

Let’s break this down and think through some ways to improve your professional group book studies!

Listen to this article.

STEP 1: Define Your Audience

Who will be reading this book? Is it open to educators at all levels and subject areas? Or is this a study for administrators? What type of administrators? Maybe this is a study for instructional coaches, a tech team, or even one that involves parents and the community.

Think through all of the possibilities for your audience and be sure you are forming a group with meaning. If not, consider forming multiple groups to better meet the needs of everyone. Trust me, nothing is worse than being forced to read a book about something that doesn’t really pertain to your role as an educator.

If you are unsure who will be participating, send out a Google Form survey.

STEP 2: Select Book Study Leaders

You need to ensure that someone is taking the lead so this whole shebang doesn’t fall apart. Is that person you? Maybe. Better yet, form a collaborative partnership or team to take the reigns and help the group navigate.

STEP 3: Define Your Goals

Why are you doing this book study? Is it because your admin says you have to do two book studies per year? I hope not. A meaningful book study should always start with the why, just like the learning in our classrooms.

• Is your goal to help teachers become more comfortable with technology? Is a book going to do that? Maybe.
• Is your goal to get teachers to make the shift to facilitator?
• Is your goal to help shift the mindset of your faculty?
• Is your goal to help teachers learn how to develop better assessments?
• Is your goal to focus on PBL?
• Is your goal to introduce innovative ideas?

Think carefully about the vision for your organization, school, or group, and connect this book study to your mission and goals. Make sure every one of the leaders is on the same page and in agreement before you move to step four.

STEP 4: Choosing a Book for Your Book Study

Once you have defined your audience and selected your leaders, it is time to select a book. Give your participants a choice! If you want buy-in and to truly effect change in your organization, you must give the participants a say in what they read. There is no shortage of books out there.

My suggestion is to have the leaders of the book study pick three to five books that fit the needs of your specific audience. Then share the choices with your participants for a vote. (Looking for ideas? Check out my recommended book list .)

Voting on a book can be fun! This can be something you do as a group, face-to-face, where you offer a “tasting” of the book options. Or with larger groups, you can create a Google Form for voting. Facebook, Twitter, and other platforms also offer some easy-to-use polling options, depending on how you communicate with your group.

If your group is over 20, DO NOT send this out as a mass email and ask for replies! What a waste of time. Use a digital tool to do the work for you.

STEP 5: Leaders Read the Book and Plan the Study

Yes, you read that correctly, read and plan the study before you start. Novel idea, I know! If you wing it, or just stay a chapter ahead, you will fail to connect the dots to the bigger picture and your overall goal.

So read, take notes, and begin to picture all the ways this book study could be facilitated, and how you will divide up the chapters and material. Flag the sections that you expect could meet resistance or disagreement. Gather additional resources. This piece is critical before you move on to step six.

STEP 6: Decide How You Will Facilitate the Book Study

Facilitating a book study doesn’t have to be complicated if you plan and organize.

• Plan out your timeline and decide on due dates for each chapter.
• Create discussion questions for each chapter.
• You may also have activities associated with each chapter. If so, now is the time to plan those out. Consider having participants create something to represent their learning, share reflections, sketch notes, booksnaps , lesson ideas, or other content related to the book’s topic.
• When and where will you meet to discuss?
• Google Classroom – great for assignments, calendars, and discussions in one location!
• Any type of website creator
• Facebook group
• Twitter with a unique hashtag
• Google Sites
• Google Groups
• Goodreads group

STEP 7: Facilitate with Finesse!

Facilitate your book study with some TLC and genuine support! Build relationships and go beyond the content of the book. Find ways to connect and learn with your group. Don’t just ask and respond to questions, make this something special for participants.

• Find ways to show positive support to those who struggle to keep up.
• Make it fun and engaging! Give away some swag or door prizes.
• Brag to administrators! Be sure you invite and tag your administrators if they are not participating so they can see the learning and support.

STEP 8: FOLLOW UP

One of the critical missing pieces to most professional learning experiences is follow-up.

Don’t forget to set a few reminders, and schedule some tweets or posts to help your participants review important concepts and IMPLEMENT ideas from the book study.

Offer a way for participants to share what they have implemented with the group. Just don’t let it all fade away.

You may also want to connect this back to a bigger project where participants are required to design and implement it by a certain date.

Ready. Set. Go!

I hope this helps you think through your book study projects and create a meaningful experience for your participants. Have more ideas to add to this list? Leave me a comment down below!

The Perfect Book Study Package!

The Shake Up Learning books were designed with book studies in mind! Not only are these books a great read for any educator, any grade level, any subject, any role, but these books have the entire package to help you facilitate a successful book study!

In Shake Up Learning and Blended Learning with Google, you will find tons of support for your professional book study!

• Discussion questions after each chapter . You don’t have to write your own! These are ready to go!
• Dedicated reflection pages after each chapter , helping you to encourage participants to think and reflect on their reading.
• Web resources and videos to support the books, including a dedicated webpage for each chapter!
• Planning and Implementation Chapters , to help readers TAKE ACTION on the content they read by designing meaningful lesson plans.
• FREE Downloads and Templates
• Meet the author! Contact me about doing a video chat with your group!
• FREE Stickers to support your book study!
• Bulk discounts for 10 or more books.
• Large group discounts on the online workshops.

© Shake Up Learning 2023. Unauthorized use and/or duplication of this material without express and written permission from this blog’s author and/or owner is strictly prohibited. Excerpts and links may be used, provided that full and clear credit is given to Kasey Bell and Shake Up Learning with appropriate and specific direction to the original content on ShakeUpLearning.com. See: Copyright Policy.

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• Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips

Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips

Published on May 19, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Throughout the research process , you’ll likely use various types of sources . The source types commonly used in academic writing include:

Academic journals

• Encyclopedias

Table of contents

Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of sources.

Academic journals are the most up-to-date sources in academia. They’re typically published multiple times a year and contain cutting-edge research. Consult academic journals to find the most current debates and research topics in your field.

There are many kinds of journal articles, including:

• Original research articles: These publish original data ( primary sources )
• Theoretical articles: These contribute to the theoretical foundations of a field.
• Review articles: These summarize the current state of the field.

Credible journals use peer review . This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published. Journal articles include a full bibliography and use scholarly or technical language.

Academic journals are usually published online, and sometimes also in print. Consult your institution’s library to find out what academic journals they provide access to.

  Learn how to cite a journal article

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Academic books are great sources to use when you need in-depth information on your research or dissertation topic .

They’re typically written by experts and provide an extensive overview and analysis of a specific topic. They can be written by a single author or by multiple authors contributing individual chapters (often overseen by a general editor).

Books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses are typically considered trustworthy sources. Academic books usually include a full bibliography and use scholarly or technical language. Books written for more general audiences are less relevant in an academic context.

Books can be accessed online or in print. Your institution’s library will likely contain access to a wide selection of each.

Learn how to cite a book

Websites are great sources for preliminary research and can help you to learn more about a topic you’re new to.

However, they are not always credible sources . Many websites don’t provide the author’s name, so it can be hard to tell if they’re an expert. Websites often don’t cite their sources, and they typically don’t subject their content to peer review.

For these reasons, you should carefully consider whether any web sources you use are appropriate to cite or not. Some websites are more credible than others. Look for DOIs or trusted domain extensions:

• URLs that end with .edu are specifically educational resources.
• URLs that end with .gov are government-related

Both of these are typically considered trustworthy.

Learn how to cite a website

Newspapers can be valuable sources, providing insights on current or past events and trends.

However, news articles are not always reliable and may be written from a biased perspective or with the intention of promoting a political agenda. News articles usually do not cite their sources and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience.

Nevertheless, newspapers can help when you need information on recent topics or events that have not been the subject of in-depth academic study. Archives of older newspapers can also be useful sources for historical research.

Newspapers are published in both digital and print form. Consult your institution’s library to find out what newspaper archives they provide access to.

Learn how to cite a newspaper article

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Encyclopedias are reference works that contain summaries or overviews of topics rather than original insights. These overviews are presented in alphabetical order.

Although they’re often written by experts, encyclopedia entries are not typically attributed to a single author and don’t provide the specialized knowledge expected of scholarly sources. As a result, they’re best used as sources of background information at the beginning of your research. You can then expand your knowledge by consulting more academic sources.

Encyclopedias can be general or subject-specific:

• General encyclopedias contain entries on diverse topics.
• Subject encyclopedias focus on a particular field and contain entries specific to that field (e.g., Western philosophy or molecular biology).

They can be found online (including crowdsourced encyclopedias like Wikipedia) or in print form.

Learn how to cite Wikipedia

Every source you use will be either a:

• Primary source : The source provides direct evidence about your topic (e.g., a news article).
• Secondary source : The source provides an interpretation or commentary on primary sources (e.g., a journal article).
• Tertiary source : The source summarizes or consolidates primary and secondary sources but does not provide additional analysis or insights (e.g., an encyclopedia).

Tertiary sources are often used for broad overviews at the beginning of a research project. Further along, you might look for primary and secondary sources that you can use to help formulate your position.

How each source is categorized depends on the topic of research and how you use the source.

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

There are many types of sources commonly used in research. These include:

• Journal articles

You’ll likely use a variety of these sources throughout the research process , and the kinds of sources you use will depend on your research topic and goals.

Scholarly sources are written by experts in their field and are typically subjected to peer review . They are intended for a scholarly audience, include a full bibliography, and use scholarly or technical language. For these reasons, they are typically considered credible sources .

Popular sources like magazines and news articles are typically written by journalists. These types of sources usually don’t include a bibliography and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience. They are not always reliable and may be written from a biased or uninformed perspective, but they can still be cited in some contexts.

In academic writing, the sources you cite should be credible and scholarly. Some of the main types of sources used are:

• Academic journals: These are the most up-to-date sources in academia. They are published more frequently than books and provide cutting-edge research.
• Books: These are great sources to use, as they are typically written by experts and provide an extensive overview and analysis of a specific topic.

It is important to find credible sources and use those that you can be sure are sufficiently scholarly .

• Consult your institute’s library to find out what books, journals, research databases, and other types of sources they provide access to.
• Look for books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses, as these are typically considered trustworthy sources.
• Look for journals that use a peer review process. This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved April 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/types-of-sources/

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5 Steps to More Effective PD With Book Studies

Educational book studies give teachers opportunities for powerful professional development built on collaboration and connection.

Book studies foster collaboration, provide educators with choices for professional learning, and help teachers explore new ideas. With an explosion of educational texts coming on the market post-pandemic, educators have more book options than ever. The bones of a book study are pretty universal: pick a book, read it, discuss it, earn continuing education credit. 

Through my personal experience in a dozen book studies, both as a student and as an author/guest speaker, I’ve witnessed huge differences in book study execution, leading to very different results. Based on these experiences and conversations with book study host Dr. Nikki Vradenburg, NBCT, director of education with Montana PBS, several factors emerged that elevate a basic book study to a truly meaningful professional learning experience. 

1. Provide Choice

Pretty simple: Increase engagement and growth by offering choice. Compared with a district-mandated book study done for a whole staff, engagement was greater in a summer course, Vradenburg notes, “because it was the teacher who had found the book study based on their own interest and desire.” 

Gather recommendations from teachers, then provide several book options. Better yet, collaborate with other districts—in your state, region, etc.—to offer even more choices and ensure diverse perspectives for discussions (see No. 2 below).

As you build your book list, acknowledge that not all books will lead to action and impact in the classroom. What’s your goal: A feel-good experience? To increase the use of best practices and drive innovation? Explore new theories and methodologies? 

If you’re not sure about a book, consider these questions: After we identify with the text and perhaps feel good or inspired, then what? What’s the takeaway? How will this book shift the teaching and learning environment? How will this book help make things better for teachers? For students?   

2. Ensure that you have a diverse group of educators

Exposure to new ideas and experiences is critical to helping educators grow. We don’t know what we don’t know. When surrounded by the same people every day, it’s easy to think, “This is what teaching and learning looks like.” To foster greater innovation and increased impact, seek out diverse perspectives. Combine buildings. Coordinate with other districts and cohost your book study. Reach out to a district that looks and operates differently than yours. 

Not only does a mixed group of educators fuel divergent thinking, but also it helps teachers break out of their roles within their building. Vradenburg notes, “It’s too easy for us to fall into labels and then have a hard time seeing people in other roles.” Plus, when we’re surrounded by people we see every day—especially our own administration—people tend to censor themselves, Vradenburg points out. While this is respectful, it’s not always the best for growth, problem-solving, or innovation. When teachers interact with educators from outside their district, they can be seen and heard in new ways, deepening the learning experience. 

3. Set clear tasks: Read this, complete this

Having a concrete task helps hold teachers accountable for their learning and ensures more vibrant discussion. This doesn’t mean micromanaging the process, just simply providing clear objectives and deadlines. This structure can also help ensure that credit is available for the book study. See my Book Club Sample Framework for ideas.

Book studies are also an effective way to model new technology tools and rethink old favorites. Use a Google Form to gather favorite quotes; use Flip to vlog about two action steps that readers will take based on that chapter; share a Jamboard or Padlet to create a thought chain; go to Mentimeter to make a word cloud.

.css-1sk4066:hover{background:#d1ecfa;} Alternatives to Google Jamboard

4. ensure opportunities to connect.

Make the time to actually talk , whether virtually or in person. Self-paced, asynchronous courses are great for all the obvious reasons, but nothing matches the spark of teachers in a space together talking about their craft. Vradenburg says that the discussions in the Zoom breakout groups were vibrant and continuous. People could vent, connect, reflect, get ideas, and inspire each other far more in these conversations than they could via any writing activity. 

We need each other. Despite surrounding us with people all day, teaching can be an oddly isolating profession. “We had a teacher on sabbatical/maternity leave,” Vradenburg shares, “and she chose to attend the book study because her brain needed the connection.” And, yes, our hearts need those connections too, to reenergize and reignite our passion for teaching. It’s hard, but find the time to connect.

5. Include an implementation plan  

Everyone’s read the book. The book and the vigorous discussions with diverse educators filled everyone with amazing ideas. Maybe that’s enough. Maybe that’s what’s needed.

But it can also be so much more . Harness all that inspiration to drive change and improve teaching and learning. As you read, take time to identify aspects of teaching and learning that are not working—for students or teachers. Extrapolate potential solutions from the book, and use your discussions to further brainstorm ideas about what could be done instead. Provide a process for participants to work through their ideas to design something —an activity, lesson, unit, or presentation. Vradenburg uses The Educator Canvas , but use any design thinking or framework that works for your team.

The final book study meetup is then a celebration of innovative implementation ideas. Teachers share their designs and receive feedback on them. I’ve seen the tiniest seedling of an idea flourish with the questions, comments, feedback, and support of book study peers.

By including an implementation plan in the book study, you’ll elevate the uplifting, energizing experience into a purposeful exercise in problem-solving and change-making.

Book studies offer endless possibilities: Each book opens the door to new information, each reader brings their own challenges and perspectives, and each discussion ignites unlimited ideas. So go organize. And if you’d like a brainstorming buddy as you plan, please reach out.

18 Best Books on Learning and Building Great Study Habits [2024 Update]

Books about learning are something special. Not only do they give us knowledge, the meta concept of how to learn to learn . Once you discover these concepts, they will make all future knowledge become a little bit easier to grasp.

Learning, after all, is not something we do from first grade until we graduate from college. Learning is something that is done for life.

The days when you could simply go to college and learn everything you need to know, and the quit learning, are long in the past. If those days EVER truly existed.

These days if you want to stay ahead or just stay competitive, you need to constantly learn new things. That is why these learning books for adults are just as important as the grade school or college education you may have received many years in the past.

Sidenote : If you're attending university right now, setting the right goals matter. Check out our post about SMART goal examples for college students.

In this article, we profile 18 books that will help you learn better and create study habits that will help you permanently retain this information.

Let's get to it…

Table of Contents

18 Books on Learning and Improving Your Study Habits

1.  the only skill that matters  by jonathan a. levi.

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• The book emphasizes the importance of meta-learning, which involves mastering the skill of learning itself to adapt and thrive in a rapidly changing world.
• Levi advocates for a holistic approach to learning, incorporating mindset, memory techniques, and speed reading to enhance cognitive abilities.
• The author highlights the significance of continuous learning and personal growth, promoting the idea that learning is a lifelong skill that can lead to success and fulfillment.
• The book offers practical strategies for optimizing learning, memory retention, and information processing, enabling readers to become more efficient and effective learners.
• Levi encourages readers to embrace a growth mindset and adopt a proactive approach to self-improvement, empowering them to navigate challenges and achieve their full potential.

The sheer amount of information bombarding us every day is overwhelming. How do we stay on top of everything in order to keep our jobs or adapt to the new demands of modern life?

The Only Skill That Matters  equips you with what you need to take on the challenges of the future – whether in your professional or personal life. And it’s offered for free. All you need to pay for is shipping and handling.

In the book, Jonathan Levi shares an approach that promises to help you become a super learner. This approach is anchored in neuroscience. Athletes and top performers have used the techniques to propel them to success.

Within the pages, you’ll learn the techniques for reading faster and improving your ability to recall information.

People who have already read this book call it a game changer. If you’re ready to unlock your potential greatness, get the free book.

2. Accelerated Learning Techniques for Students by Joe McCullough

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• The book provides practical strategies for students to enhance their learning abilities and improve academic performance.
• McCullough emphasizes the importance of effective study habits, time management, and memory techniques to optimize learning outcomes.
• The author introduces accelerated learning methods such as speed reading, mnemonic devices, and mind mapping to help students absorb and retain information more efficiently.
• The book promotes a growth mindset and encourages students to take an active role in their learning process, fostering a sense of empowerment and self-improvement.
• McCullough offers guidance on overcoming common learning obstacles and provides tools for students to develop a personalized approach to learning that aligns with their individual strengths and preferences.

Accelerated Learning Techniques for Students: Learn More in Less Time! unlocks the secrets of efficient learning techniques that allow students to master any subject or skill.

The book promises to help you learn more in less time, and it does so by providing actionable tips for processing new information, communicating more effectively, remembering lessons, becoming proficient at a skill, and more .

(Sidenote: If you're having trouble remembering the material, then The Feynman Technique can help you solve this issue.)

McCullough shares with readers several ways of enhancing thinking skills, while also equipping them with efficient learning strategies. Specifically, this book will help you:

• Understand the factors that prevent you from learning effectively
• Apply ways to manage your physical and mental energies
• Discover note-taking techniques that work for you (Sidebar: We also profile 15 note-taking apps that can help you retain information .)

The book helps you understand the different types of brainwaves humans have. It also teaches you how to reach the alpha state that McCullough theorizes is the best state of consciousness for learning something new .

McCullough provides practical information to help students improve their learning techniques. Moreover, the theories presented make this book useful for educators, school administrators, or anyone who is involved in education.

3. Make It Stick! by Peter C. Brown, Henry L. Roediger III, and Mark A. MacDaniel

• The book explores the science of effective learning and memory retention, debunking common misconceptions about learning strategies.
• Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel emphasize the benefits of active learning, retrieval practice, and spaced repetition in promoting long-term retention and understanding.
• The authors highlight the significance of embracing difficulty and making learning effortful, as this enhances memory consolidation and promotes durable learning.
• Make It Stick advocates for the use of interleaving and varied practice to reinforce learning and prevent forgetting, providing practical insights into optimizing study techniques.
• The book challenges traditional study methods and offers evidence-based approaches to learning that can benefit students, educators, and lifelong learners.

Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning presents the most recent research on learning. The premise is that learning is a skill that all of us can acquire . The book counters our long-held notions about the learning techniques we commonly use in academia.

Two of the authors are cognitive scientists who have spent most of their careers studying how people learn and how memory works. Meanwhile, Peter C. Brown is a writer by trade. The three teamed up to give readers a book that’s filled with examples in story form to get their point across.

Through this book, readers will learn several concrete learning strategies for retaining what you’ve studied. These include:

• Interleaving
• Elaboration
• Calibration
• Use of mnemonic devices
• Maintaining a growth mindset

This book is ideal for life-long learners, those working in the field of education, coaches, and trainers.

4. Novice to Expert by Steve Scott

• Novice to Expert emphasizes the importance of deliberate practice and continuous learning in achieving mastery in any field or skill.
• Scott discusses the concept of the “expert gap” and provides insights into bridging this divide through focused, intentional practice and skill development.
• The book encourages individuals to embrace a growth mindset and persist through challenges, highlighting the role of perseverance and dedication in the journey from novice to expert.
• Scott offers practical strategies for setting and achieving learning goals, emphasizing the value of feedback, reflection, and refinement in the pursuit of expertise.
• Novice to Expert provides a roadmap for skill acquisition and mastery, empowering readers to cultivate expertise through consistent, purposeful effort and dedication.

The main goal of this book is to help you master a skill that will help you tap into your passion, know yourself more, meet individuals who share the same interests as you do, and share what you’ve learned with other people.

Novice to Expert: 6 Steps to Learn Anything, Increase Your Knowledge, and Master New Skills outlines six steps you need in order to achieve mastery in just about anything. These steps are:

• Identifying your preferred learning style
• Choosing a specific skill you want to master
• Developing the learning habit and surrounding yourself with relevant information
• Using practical methods for note-taking
• Creating a project center around the skill you want to master
• Deliberately spending time each day practicing the skill

The book is an ideal resource for students who are mastering the skill of self-directed learning, clearing the path on what needs to be done to learn something new. It is also great for those who need a guide on how to increase their productivity and to develop good habits at work.

5. Learn to Read with Great Speed by Michal Stawicki

• The book offers practical techniques and exercises to help readers improve their reading speed and comprehension.
• Stawicki emphasizes the importance of eliminating subvocalization and other reading barriers to increase reading speed.
• Learn to Read with Great Speed provides strategies for developing efficient eye movement and expanding peripheral vision to enhance reading speed and efficiency.
• The author advocates for the use of visualization and other cognitive techniques to process information more rapidly while maintaining comprehension.
• The book aims to empower readers with the skills and mindset to read faster and absorb information more effectively, ultimately improving overall productivity and knowledge acquisition.

If you’re looking for a straightforward book on speed reading, you might want to check out Learn to Read with Great Speed: How to Take Your Reading Skills to the Next Level and Beyond in only 10 Minutes a Day .

Although it is a thin volume, it gets straight to the point and delivers what you expect: helpful tips and strategies to help you become a speed reader. (Also, if you are interested in this subject, here are 9 steps that can help you read faster .)

Stawicki provides concrete examples of how to apply speed-reading strategies, as well as exercises to sharpen your newfound skill . Results are immediately apparent after doing the exercises, so you are always aware of your progress.

This book also presents the possible challenges you’ll encounter when speed reading, as well as the best techniques to overcome them. You need to commit just 10 minutes of your time each day to become a master at speed reading.

The book is ideal for those who are studying, or those whose careers require them to do a lot of reading. (And even if you're not a “reader,” here are 17 benefits of building the reading habit .)

Side Note: We've reviewed the best speed reading apps that can help you retain more information and the best speed reading books that can help you learn more .

6. The Learning Habit by Stephanie Donaldson-Pressman, Rebecca Jackson, and Robert Pressman

• The Learning Habit delves into the science of learning and provides insights into cultivating effective study habits and motivation in children.
• The authors emphasize the role of parental involvement and support in fostering a love for learning and developing strong study skills in children.
• The book offers practical strategies for creating a conducive learning environment at home and promoting a growth mindset in children.
• Donaldson-Pressman, Jackson, and Pressman highlight the importance of instilling intrinsic motivation and resilience in children to enhance their learning habits.
• The Learning Habit provides evidence-based approaches to nurturing lifelong learning skills and fostering a positive attitude towards education in children.

The Learning Habit: A Groundbreaking Approach to Homework and Parenting that Helps Our Children Succeed in School and Life is valuable for parents who need a guide on how to support their kids as they navigate through life in a society full of new challenges that past generations didn’t have to deal with.

The authors offer sound strategies for helping kids succeed in life , but the book requires the parents to fully commit to the suggested activities in order to get the maximum benefit.

In this book, “screen time,” the all-too-common cause of contention in many families, is discussed, in addition to a solution that can help keep the peace at home.

Furthermore, the authors provide research-backed methods to help kids learn eight crucial skills that will serve them well later in life, including time management , goal setting , increasing your focus , and making better decisions .

7. Train Your Mind, Change Your Brain by Sharon Begley

• Train Your Mind, Change Your Brain explores the concept of neuroplasticity and how the brain can rewire itself through mental training and mindfulness practices.
• Begley discusses the transformative power of meditation and mindfulness in reshaping the brain's structure and function, leading to positive behavioral and emotional changes.
• The book highlights groundbreaking research on the brain's ability to adapt and change throughout life, offering hope for individuals seeking personal growth and mental well-being.
• Train Your Mind, Change Your Brain provides insights into the potential for cognitive and emotional transformation through intentional mental exercises and mindfulness techniques.
• Begley's work sheds light on the profound implications of neuroplasticity, offering a compelling perspective on the brain's capacity for change and adaptation.

We are never too old to learn something new. And in Train Your Mind, Change Your Brain: How a New Science Reveals Our Extraordinary Potential to Transform Ourselves , you’ll find fascinating bits of information about the brain’s neuroplasticity .

The premise of the book is that our brains are capable of healing themselves after trauma, breaking cycles of some mental disorders, generating new neurons well into our old age, and compensating when we have disabilities .

It shares the story of how researchers have uncovered the brain’s amazing capacity for neuroplasticity and neurogenesis (the ability to grow new neurons).

The scientific content of the book is supplemented with discussions with the Dalai Lama, providing the readers with a new viewpoint about how meditation can change the way the mind functions.

The book provides a new way of understanding how our brains work. It also offers a ray of hope that healing is possible for those who suffered from trauma, stroke, and mental disorders.

8. Thinking, Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman

• The book introduces the concept of two systems of thinking: System 1, which is fast, intuitive, and prone to biases, and System 2, which is slower, deliberate, and analytical.
• Kahneman explores the cognitive biases and heuristics that influence decision-making and judgment, shedding light on the limitations of human rationality.
• Thinking, Fast and Slow delves into prospect theory and the impact of loss aversion on decision-making, providing insights into how individuals evaluate and respond to risks and rewards.
• The author discusses the influence of anchoring, availability, and representativeness heuristics on perception and decision-making, offering a comprehensive analysis of human cognitive processes.
• The book challenges traditional views of human rationality and decision-making, providing a compelling framework for understanding the complexities of the mind and the factors that shape our judgments and choices.

This award-winning book, Thinking, Fast and Slow , takes readers on a tour of the mind and introduces them to two systems that are at work when the brain is engaged in the thought process.

System 1 and system 2 function differently. System 1 is intuitive and emotional, giving us the ability to quickly make conclusions, regardless of the facts. Meanwhile, system 2 is more logical and requires deliberation on the part of the thinker. Kahneman reveals that system 1 is more active in a majority of people .

The book’s content is relevant for both individuals and policy makers engaged in decision-making. It is ideal for those who want to develop a deeper understanding of themselves and of others.

9. The Power of Neuroplasticity by Dr. Shad Helmstetter

• The Power of Neuroplasticity explores the brain's ability to rewire and adapt through intentional thought and behavioral changes, offering hope for personal transformation.
• Helmstetter emphasizes the role of self-talk and affirmations in reshaping neural pathways and fostering positive change in attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
• The book provides practical strategies for leveraging neuroplasticity to overcome negative thought patterns, develop new skills, and achieve personal growth and success.
• Dr. Shad Helmstetter highlights the potential for individuals to reprogram their thinking and behavior through deliberate, consistent efforts, leading to lasting positive changes.
• The Power of Neuroplasticity offers a compelling perspective on the brain's malleability and its implications for self-improvement, resilience, and achieving one's full potential.

In The Power of Neuroplasticity , Dr. Shad Helmstetter explains how the brain continues to grow and change over time . He also gives readers a glimpse of what happens when people do not take advantage of opportunities for self-improvement.

This book promises to change your life for the better with the help of recent research in neuroscience.

The author provides actionable suggestions on how to apply the information found in the book to increase mental alertness, improve intelligence , boost health , overcome attitudes that hold you back, and achieve goals .

10. Thinkertoys by Michael Michalko

• Thinkertoys introduces a diverse array of creative thinking techniques and exercises designed to inspire innovative problem-solving and idea generation.
• Michalko explores the concept of “Thinkertoys” as mental tools that stimulate creativity and encourage unconventional thinking to solve complex challenges.
• The book offers practical creativity-boosting strategies such as mind mapping, random word stimulation, and reverse thinking to break through mental barriers and generate fresh ideas.
• Thinkertoys provides a wealth of creative prompts and exercises to help individuals and teams unleash their creative potential and develop a more innovative mindset.
• Michalko's work serves as a valuable resource for individuals seeking to enhance their creative thinking skills and approach problem-solving from new and inventive angles.

Thinkertoys: A Handbook of Creative-Thinking Techniques helps you alter the way you view your own creativity by demystifying the process of creativity and allowing you to see the limitless potentials there are before you.

By applying the creative-thinking techniques provided in this book, readers will:

• Discover new ways of making money
• Open up opportunities for business
• See problems from a different viewpoint
• Look at previously unexplored angles for problem solving
• Improve and/or create new products and processes
• Come up with the most innovative ideas
• Increase productivity

This book is well-organized. Each chapter provides the blueprint for a specific creative-thinking technique, including instructions on how to do the techniques, as well as anecdotes and discussions to explain why the technique works in enhancing your creativity.

11. How We Learn by Benedict Carey

• How We Learn explores the science of learning and memory, debunking common misconceptions and offering evidence-based insights into effective study techniques.
• Carey delves into the concept of desirable difficulties, highlighting the benefits of introducing challenges and variations in the learning process to enhance retention and understanding.
• The book emphasizes the value of spaced repetition, interleaving, and retrieval practice in optimizing memory retention and long-term learning.
• Carey discusses the impact of sleep, exercise, and stress on learning, providing practical strategies for leveraging these factors to enhance cognitive function and information retention.
• How We Learn offers a compelling perspective on the cognitive processes involved in learning, providing practical applications and strategies for improving study habits and maximizing learning outcomes.

In this book, Benedict Carey tells readers that the brain isn’t a muscle in a literal sense, but that our brains are eccentric learning machines sensitive to environmental and internal factors such as moods and the circadian rhythm .

How We Learn: The Surprising Truth About When, Where, and Why It Happens shows how we can tap into the quirks of our own gray matter and use them to our advantage.

The information provided by Carey in his book is both fascinating and insightful. It allows us to understand what goes on when we learn something.

This book is ideal for students who want an out-of-the-box guide to help them understand the learning process, as well as for educators looking for ways to support their students in succeeding in the classroom and in life.

12. Speed Reading with the Right Brain by David Butler

• Speed Reading with the Right Brain introduces techniques to improve reading speed and comprehension by engaging the brain's holistic processing abilities.
• Butler emphasizes the importance of visualization, peripheral vision, and reducing subvocalization to enhance reading speed and information absorption.
• The book offers practical exercises and strategies to help readers tap into their right-brain capabilities for faster reading and improved retention.
• Butler's work challenges traditional reading methods and encourages readers to leverage their brain's natural processing abilities to read more efficiently and effectively.
• Speed Reading with the Right Brain provides a unique approach to speed reading, focusing on holistic brain engagement to optimize reading skills and cognitive processing.

Speed Reading with the Right Brain: Read Faster by Reading Ideas Instead of Just Words is not your usual guide to speed reading.

The approach is completely unique and different from other speed-reading books, which typically offer techniques for increasing the number of words you read per minute. In this book, the author offers strategies that engage your visualizing skills in order to comprehend what you read faster .

You will be introduced to the right-brain system of speed reading through exercises that help you assimilate what you’ve read more deeply and retain information longer.

13. Organize Your Mind, Organize Your Life by Margaret Moore and Paul Hammerness

• Organize Your Mind, Organize Your Life explores the connection between mental well-being and organizational skills, offering insights into managing stress and enhancing productivity.
• Moore and Hammerness emphasize the importance of developing mental agility and resilience to navigate life's challenges and uncertainties.
• The book provides practical strategies for improving focus, decision-making, and time management, promoting a more organized and balanced approach to daily life.
• The authors highlight the impact of mindfulness, self-awareness, and cognitive flexibility in achieving mental organization and overall well-being.
• Organize Your Mind, Organize Your Life offers a holistic approach to personal organization, integrating mental and emotional wellness with practical strategies for improved productivity and life management.

The authors describe the result of their collaborative work as a “prescriptive book.” In it, they share strategies for organizing your life by organizing your thoughts.

Organize Your Mind, Organize Your Life: Train Your Brain to Get More Done in Less Tim has a two-step approach to helping you achieve a richer, more meaningful life. Hammerness and Moore call it the “one-two punch.”

First, Hammerness explains the organizing principles involved in focus and attention. Then, Moore guides you on how to use techniques for applying the principles in your own life .

The information that the authors share is life-changing and captivating. Although what they share is based heavily on neuroscience and psychology, the suggested techniques are not only practical, but doable and inspirational as well.

14. The First 20 Hours by Josh Kaufman

• The First 20 Hours advocates for a rapid skill acquisition approach, emphasizing the importance of focused, deliberate practice over extended periods.
• Kaufman introduces the concept of deconstruction, breaking down complex skills into manageable subskills to accelerate the learning process.
• The book highlights the significance of targeted practice, feedback, and experimentation in rapidly gaining proficiency in new skills.
• Kaufman encourages readers to embrace a mindset of deliberate practice and strategic learning to achieve a level of competence in a new skill within a relatively short timeframe.
• The First 20 Hours provides a practical framework for expedited skill acquisition, offering insights into the principles and strategies for efficient and effective learning.

Perhaps you’ve heard of the 10,000-hour rule in skill acquisition. This book counters the long-held belief that it takes an average of 10,000 accumulated hours in order to master an activity.

In The First 20 Hours: How to Learn Anything…Fast! , Kaufman shares a systematic approach to skill mastery in the quickest way possible. His method requires 20 hours of deliberate practice .

The method involves deconstructing complex skills, learning how to get the most out of practice, and identifying and eliminating common obstacles to learning.

Kaufman himself has field tested his method, using it to acquire new skills such as playing a musical instrument, programming an app, and learning a new sport.

15. The Champion's Mind by Jim Afremow

• According to The Champion's Mind: How Great Athletes Think, Train, and Thrive , mental toughness is a crucial component of athletic success, and it can be developed through consistent training and practice.
• Visualization and positive self-talk are powerful tools that athletes can use to enhance their performance and overcome challenges.
• Setting specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals is essential for athletes to stay focused and motivated.
• The importance of maintaining a growth mindset, embracing failure as a learning opportunity, and staying resilient in the face of adversity.
• The significance of proper rest, recovery, and self-care in optimizing athletic performance and overall well-being.

16. The ONE Thing by Gary Keller and Jay Papasan

• The ONE Thing: The Surprisingly Simple Truth About Extraordinary Results emphasizes that focusing on the one most important thing at any given time is crucial for achieving extraordinary results and avoiding distractions.
• Prioritizing and time-blocking are powerful tools for maximizing productivity and achieving significant progress toward important goals.
• Building habits and routines that support the pursuit of the “one thing” is essential for long-term success and sustained progress.
• Understanding the domino effect and how small, focused actions can lead to significant outcomes over time.
• The importance of balancing work and personal life by identifying the “one thing” in each area and dedicating appropriate time and energy to it.

17. Deep Work by Cal Newport

• In Deep Work: Rules for Focused Success in a Distracted World , deep work, characterized by intense focus and minimal distractions, is essential for producing high-quality work and achieving professional success.
• Embracing deep work requires deliberate practice and the cultivation of the ability to concentrate deeply on cognitively demanding tasks.
• The importance of creating and adhering to strict boundaries to minimize shallow work and distractions in order to maximize deep work productivity.
• The concept of attention residue and the impact of task-switching on cognitive performance, emphasizing the need for sustained focus on one task at a time.
• The value of embracing boredom and solitude as catalysts for deep work, allowing for uninterrupted concentration and the generation of valuable insights and solutions.

18. Eat That Frog! by Brian Tracy

• According to Eat That Frog!: 21 Great Ways to Stop Procrastinating and Get More Done in Less Time , prioritizing and tackling the most challenging or important tasks first thing in the morning can significantly boost productivity and reduce procrastination.
• Breaking down big tasks into smaller, manageable steps and focusing on completing them one at a time is a powerful strategy for overcoming procrastination and achieving goals.
• The significance of setting clear goals and deadlines, as well as creating detailed action plans, to increase motivation and minimize procrastination.
• The 80/20 rule, which suggests that 20% of activities contribute to 80% of the results, can be applied to identify and focus on the most impactful tasks to minimize procrastination.
• Embracing the concept of “eating the frog” by tackling the most challenging or unpleasant task first, leading to a sense of accomplishment and momentum for the rest of the day.

Final Thoughts on Learning Books

Reading books about learning is important for several reasons. Not only will you learn from experts and understand learning theories, you will also developing critical thinking skills and discover new strategies and study tips.

We hope you enjoyed these 18 books on learning and retaining the information that you encounter in life.

If you'd like to discover even more books, then browse through this list of 250+ self-help books that are broken down into wide range of categories .

And if you'd like to discover additional resources that can help you learn new skills, then I recommend checking out these three platforms.

• Skillshare (You can read the review of it here .)
• Udemy (You can read the review of it here .)
• Coursera (You can read the review of it here .)

Finally, if you want a PROVEN method to mastering your next test, then take this short masterclass on how to study for exams and getting excellent grades .

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Novels & Picture Books

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• Book Recommendations
• Novel Study

3rd Grade Novel Study Books

By Mary Montero

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Most teachers have a passion for stockpiling at least two things: school supplies and books! I cannot resist browsing new books for read alouds, mentor texts, and novel studies. Of the three, novel studies can be the trickiest to plan. From selecting the right book to facilitating discussions and accountability, here’s my process for creating successful novel study units that engage and inspire students. I’ll also share my favorite 3rd grade novel study books (and be sure to follow for upcoming 4th grade and 5th grade book recommendations!).

Novel Study Benefits

Novel studies require a deep exploration of text, as well as a level of indepence from your upper elementary readers. While I guide students through an in-depth analysis of the themes, characters, and literary devices used in the book, I also create time for them to work independently and in groups. Students must learn to manage their time, monitor their own comprehension, and collaborate. 

In addition to reading skills, novel studies also promote critical thinking and analytical skills as students develop a deeper understanding of literature. Carefully-selected novel study activities can enhance students’ writing skills too! 

How To Hold Students Accountable During Novel Studies

When I first started using novel studies, I was nervous about student accountability and growth. If we weren’t reading together, how could I ensure students were, in fact, reading? If we didn’t touch base every day, how would I monitor progress and comprehension? If I wasn’t using a textbook or specific curriculum, would novel studies meet my standards? 

Fortunately, I didn’t really need to worry about any of that. With lots of modeling and practice (along with the right resources!), my students THRIVE with novel studies.

Novel Study Resources

To help with accountability and standards, I created open-ended activities that work with almost ANY upper elementary novel. Here are some great choices!

• Pre-Reading Task Cards
• Complete Novel Study Bundle
• Free Novel Projects
• Free Differentiated Novel Choice Boards
• Free Writing and Vocabulary Novel Choice Boards
• This blog post is full of reading response activities

Close reading and annotating can be another way to support reading comprehension during novel studies. This post is a helpful place to start when teaching annotation .

More Novel Study Teacher Tips

Teachers in our FREE Inspired in Upper Elementary Facebook group also shared how they hold students accountable and meet standards during novel studies. Here’s what some of them said!

“I make my own novel studies and hit the standards as I move through the book. We talk about story elements at the beginning, then explore problems and solutions, summary, supporting answers with evidence, main idea, and theme. We spiral back throughout the book to explore how these things can change as the story develops. I also scatter some smaller things throughout like figurative language, prefixes and suffixes, using a dictionary, and context clues. Each section assigned has a vocabulary component, and 3 short response questions that connect to comprehension and standards. Every other assignment students are asked to summarize the events.” – Camille 

“With novel studies, I always cover the basics such as characters (descriptions, development), setting, problem, solution, point of view, sequencing, theme, and vocabulary. You can teach all kinds of context clues throughout the text. Sometimes I have words I know they need to learn, but it’s also student driven as they get to pick words they don’t know and we use context clues skills to figure it out. Absolutely you can select sections to reread for a specific purpose. One thing I felt like I was lacking this year ended up being basic summarizing, so for our last quarter literature circles I started “matchbook summaries”, which I found the idea somewhere online. I love novel studies and literature circles, but my main problem this year is feeingl like we’re constantly rushing, and I really just need to slow down and make sure we interact with the text more, not just read, talk, and move on, which is what ended up happening in most cases.

Another challenge I have is once we read that last word of the last chapter, the kids think we are “done”. But, there are a lot of post reading and rereading activities you can and should do. That’s the best place to teach theme, character development, etc, and do some reading response type written questions, plot, sequence, etc.” – Farrah

“After every chapter, students are asked to do some response: answer comprehension questions, make connections, draw, etc. I also incorporate vocabulary. Since most of the novels I teach are historical fiction, there is a LOT of history in my curriculum as well.” – Sarah

How to Select Upper Elementary Books for Novel Studies

Offering a variety of appropriate book choices is another key element for running successful novel studies. This post has my best tips for selecting novels in upper elementary .

You can also click here to download a free checklist for selecting novels to use your classroom as you plan your read aloud books and novel studies for the year .

Must-Read 3rd Grade Novel Study Books

These are some of my favorite 3rd grade novel study books that are sure to be a hit with your students too. You can see them all here on Amazon for easy browsing (Amazon affiliate link). Please preview the content of each book to make sure it is a good fit for your child and family.

• The One and Only Ivan
• Ramona Quimby, Age 8
• The Mouse and the Motorcycle
• Wayside School is Falling Down
• The Miraculous Journey of Edward Tulane
• The Tale of Despereaux
• The Great Brain
• The Invention of Hugo Cabret
• The Cricket in Times Square
• The Book Wanderers
• Love That Dog
• The Land of Stories
• Lemonade War
• The Wild Robot*

Even More Book Recommendations

If you loved these 3rd grade novel study books, enter your email below for more book lists and activity ideas sent straight to your inbox!

Mary Montero

I’m so glad you are here. I’m a current gifted and talented teacher in a small town in Colorado, and I’ve been in education since 2009. My passion (other than my family and cookies) is for making teachers’ lives easier and classrooms more engaging.

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Literature Reviews: Types of Literature

• Library Basics
• 1. Choose Your Topic
• How to Find Books
• Types of Clinical Study Designs

Types of Literature

• 3. Search the Literature
• 4. Read & Analyze the Literature
• 5. Write the Review
• Keeping Track of Information
• Style Guides
• Books, Tutorials & Examples

Different types of publications have different characteristics.

Primary Literature Primary sources means original studies, based on direct observation, use of statistical records, interviews, or experimental methods, of actual practices or the actual impact of practices or policies. They are authored by researchers, contains original research data, and are usually published in a peer-reviewed journal. Primary literature may also include conference papers, pre-prints, or preliminary reports. Also called empirical research .

Secondary Literature Secondary literature consists of interpretations and evaluations that are derived from or refer to the primary source literature. Examples include review articles (such as meta-analysis and systematic reviews) and reference works. Professionals within each discipline take the primary literature and synthesize, generalize, and integrate new research.

Tertiary Literature Tertiary literature consists of a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources such as textbooks, encyclopedia articles, and guidebooks or handbooks. The purpose of tertiary literature is to provide an overview of key research findings and an introduction to principles and practices within the discipline.

Adapted from the Information Services Department of the Library of the Health Sciences-Chicago , University of Illinois at Chicago.

Types of Scientific Publications

These examples and descriptions of publication types will give you an idea of how to use various works and why you would want to write a particular kind of paper.

• Scholarly article aka empirical article
• Review article
• Conference paper

Scholarly (aka empirical) article -- example

Empirical studies use data derived from observation or experiment. Original research papers (also called primary research articles) that describe empirical studies and their results are published in academic journals.  Articles that report empirical research contain different sections which relate to the steps of the scientific method.

      Abstract - The abstract provides a very brief summary of the research.

     Introduction - The introduction sets the research in a context, which provides a review of related research and develops the hypotheses for the research.

     Method - The method section describes how the research was conducted.

     Results - The results section describes the outcomes of the study.

     Discussion - The discussion section contains the interpretations and implications of the study.

     References - A references section lists the articles, books, and other material cited in the report.

Review article -- example

A review article summarizes a particular field of study and places the recent research in context. It provides an overview and is an excellent introduction to a subject area. The references used in a review article are helpful as they lead to more in-depth research.

Many databases have limits or filters to search for review articles. You can also search by keywords like review article, survey, overview, summary, etc.

Conference proceedings, abstracts and reports -- example

Conference proceedings, abstracts and reports are not usually peer-reviewed.  A conference article is similar to a scholarly article insofar as it is academic. Conference articles are published much more quickly than scholarly articles. You can find conference papers in many of the same places as scholarly articles.

How Do You Identify Empirical Articles?

To identify an article based on empirical research, look for the following characteristics:

     The article is published in a peer-reviewed journal .

     The article includes charts, graphs, or statistical analysis .

     The article is substantial in size , likely to be more than 5 pages long.

     The article contains the following parts (the exact terms may vary): abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references .

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The Three Types of Myths: Aetiological, Historical, and Psychological

There are actually many different types of myth, not just three. In fact, there are several entire theories of myth. The theoretical study of myth is very complex; many books have been written about theories of myth, and we could have an entire class just on theories of myth (without studying any of the myths themselves). The problem with theories of myth, however, is that they are not very good; they don’t do a great job of explaining the myths or helping us understand them. Furthermore, the myths themselves are much more interesting than the theories. For these reasons, this textbook will not say very much about the theories of myth. But we don’t want to ignore the theoretical study of myth entirely, so we will limit ourselves to discussing only three types of myth.

1. Aetiological Myths

Aetiological (sometimes spelled etiological) myths explain the reason why something is the way it is today. The word aetiological is from the Greek word aetion (αἴτιον), meaning “reason” or “explanation”. Please note that the reasons given in an aetiological myth are NOT the real (or scientific) reasons. They are explanations that have meaning for us as human beings. There are three subtypes of aetiological myths: natural, etymological, and religious.

A natural aetiological myth explains an aspect of nature. For example, you could explain lightning and thunder by saying that Zeus is angry.

An etymological aetiological myth explains the origin of a word. (Etymology is the study of word origins.) For example, you could explain the name of the goddess Aphrodite by saying that she was born in sea foam, since aphros is the Greek word for sea foam.

A religious aetiological myth explains the origin of a religious ritual. For example, you could explain the Greek religious ritual of the Eleusinian Mysteries by saying that they originated when the Greek goddess Demeter came down to the city of Eleusis and taught the people how to worship her.

All three of these explanations are not true: Zeus’ anger is not the correct explanation for lightning and thunder, Aphrodite’s name was not actually derived from the Greek word aphros , and Demeter did not establish her own religious rituals in the town of Eleusis. Rather, all of these explanations had meaning for the ancient Greeks, who told them in order to help themselves understand their world.

2. Historical Myths

Historical myths are told about a historical event, and they help keep the memory of that event alive. Ironically, in historical myths, the accuracy is lost but meaning is gained. The myths about the Trojan War, including the Iliad and the Odyssey , could be classified as historical myths. The Trojan War did occur, but the famous characters that we know from the Iliad and the Odyssey (Agamemnon, Achilles, Hector, etc.) probably did not exist.

3. Psychological Myths

Psychological myths try to explain why we feel and act the way we do. A psychological myth is different from an aetiological myth because a psychological myth does not try to explain one thing by way of something else (like explaining lightning and thunder with Zeus’ anger does). In a psychological myth, the emotion itself is seen as a divine force, coming from the outside, that can directly influence a person’s emotions. For example, the goddess Aphrodite is sometimes seen as the power of erotic love. When someone said or did something that they did not want to do, the ancient Greeks might have said that Aphrodite “made them” do it.

Mythology Unbound: An Online Textbook for Classical Mythology Copyright © by Jessica Mellenthin and Susan O. Shapiro is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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When planning an author study , one of the most important considerations is (of course!) deciding which author to focus on, as your students will be spending a good amount of time getting to know them.

While selecting an author who you know already resonates with your students is a great place to start, there are three other key factors that can ensure your students get the most out of their author study.

1. A Variety of Titles

Look for an author who has a variety of titles appropriate for your students’ grade level. This will enable students to easily make comparisons across texts, identify common themes and styles, and determine how an author’s personal experiences may have contributed to their works. Patricia Polacco , for example, was bullied as a child for her dyslexia, and her life experiences have shaped many of her stories.

2. New Genres and Styles

Think about if your students may benefit from exposure to a different genre , author voice, or style. Rick Riordan’s books, for instance, can help older students discover the nuances of fantasy mystery novels, while young readers may learn about new traditions through delightful stories like Bringing in the New Year  from Grace Lin .

3. Curriculum Syncing

Finally, determine how a particular author will boost your broader curriculum. For older students exploring more complex topics of natural science, Gary Paulsen’s wilderness-themed novels can help students make deeper connections with nature.

By exploring these collections with your students, you can help build their reading fluency, deepen their understanding of stories, and develop their critical thinking skills. 

Shop the best collections for author studies below! You can find all books and activities at The Teacher Store .

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Nature » Nature Writing

The best books on trees, recommended by david george haskell.

The Songs of Trees: Stories from Nature's Great Connectors by David George Haskell

‘The wood that frames our houses, holds up our furniture, and gives us paper arrives with signs of its ecological history purged.’ We’re a long way from the campfire where our relationship with trees got going. Here, David George Haskell takes us back, deep into the forest.

Interview by Caspar Henderson

Ecology of a Cracker Childhood by Janisse Ray

Handbook of Nature Study by Anna Botsford Comstock

The New Sylva: A Discourse of Forest and Orchard Trees for the Twenty-First Century by Gabriel Hemery & Sarah Simblet

Chuang Tzu: The Inner Chapters by David Hinton & Zhuangzi (aka Chuang Tzu)

The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-Eye View of the World by Michael Pollan

1 Ecology of a Cracker Childhood by Janisse Ray

2 handbook of nature study by anna botsford comstock, 3 the new sylva: a discourse of forest and orchard trees for the twenty-first century by gabriel hemery & sarah simblet, 4 chuang tzu: the inner chapters by david hinton & zhuangzi (aka chuang tzu), 5 the botany of desire: a plant's-eye view of the world by michael pollan.

What do we need to understand about trees?

Back at the ancient campfire, food is cooked – and nutrients released – by the sudden release of sunlight trapped inside the burning tree branches. Our big human brains and delicate teeth evolved because wood made cooking possible. Other major technological and cultural advances also happened through our relationship with trees: shelter, shafted tools, musical instruments, paper. These connections continue to this day and are industrialized and magnified in wood- and fossil-wood-burning factories, clean drinking water piped into cities from forests, oxygenated air bathing our lungs, and CO2 sponged from the atmosphere by forests.

“Extended attention to the seemingly small and insignificant paradoxically takes us into the bigger questions”

Our modern dependence on trees is mostly hidden from our senses. We don’t hear the rain passing through forest canopies on its way to the reservoir. We don’t smell the wood pellets and coal chunks that power our computers and homes. The wood that frames our houses, holds up our furniture, and gives us paper arrives with signs of its ecological history purged. So we imagine that we’ve transcended our ancestors’ close relationship with trees. But this is illusion. There is no good future for Homo sapiens without forests.

Yet forests are in crisis. We live in an age of great diminishment. In just the first dozen years of this millennium, 2.3 million square kilometres of forest were lost – cut, burned, drowned, desertified – yet only 0.8 million regrew or were replanted.

You have written two books for the general reader about forests and trees: The Forest Unseen: A Year’s Watch in Nature  (2012) and The Songs of Trees: Stories of Nature’s Great Connectors  (2017). The first focuses on a square metre of ground on a mountainside in Tennessee. The second ranges across the world in time and space. What unites them and distinguishes them from each other?

Sit down. Shut up. Pay attention. Repeat, hundreds of times over.

That’s the method that unites the books. Through attention to what seem to be small places, I try to open my senses and break through my preconceptions. I then scurry off to the library to burrow into the scientific literature and seek the ideas that might explain what I’ve experienced in the forest or with a tree.

So in both books I weave my open-sensed experience with larger ideas about ecology, evolution, and human culture. But this is an imperfect description because “weave” implies that these are separate strands. In my experience, “universal” ideas (natural selection, ethics, the cycles of ecology) are all present within the particular. So extended attention to the seemingly small and insignificant paradoxically takes us into the bigger questions. Contemplatives in religious traditions have known this for millennia and have developed meditation practices to cultivate such insight. Most fiction uses a similar approach: an intense focus on a small number of characters touches deeper than a panoramic survey of thousands of people. The study of natural history also has a long tradition of attention to place, now partly engulfed and destroyed by an education system that deracinates us.

“The book’s central argument is that you cannot understand human evolution and our future without also understanding trees”

Turning to the books you’re recommending, your first choice is Ecology of a Cracker Childhood  (1999) by Janisse Ray. What makes this book so remarkable?

Janisse Ray tells the story of one of the world’s great forests—the longleaf of the southeastern US, an ecosystem mostly obliterated in the 19th century—through her experience of being “raised in a junkyard”, in a region most people now write off as being “as ugly as a place can get”. Her book tells this story from the perspectives of those often missing from writing about forests and trees: a child, a young woman, a daughter of a fundamentalist, a poor family with poorer neighbours, and a culture that has lived within the forest and its ecologically degraded remnants for generations. Ray is a vital, insightful writer and her voice is full of the language and modes of thought of what she calls her “homeland” of “lost forests”. In telling her stories, she unfolds the many cultural, ecological, ethical and personal layers of our relationships to trees and ecological communities.

Ray may have grown up in a junkyard, but the childhood she describes back in the 1960s and 70s was one in which she was able to get out into the woods.  I tend to assume that—as in many other places—many if not most children in the southeast US today grow up in more material comfort but with less direct contact with the natural world than Ray. Still, many of us like to think that we’re more environmentally aware and ecologically literate than previous generations. But is that really the case? After all, there is much concern about shorter attention spans in a hyper-connected world. What is your experience, as a teacher and researcher?

The world has always been biologically hyper-connected: every living body, every forest, every drop of ocean water is a swarm of connections. Our electronic media are the latest manifestation of life’s networks, an outgrowth of the social nature of the human mind. The medium is new, but the problems are old. Every network faces a tension between openness and walls, opportunity and vulnerability. And so the arms race that we’re all suffering through now in electronic media is a variation on an ancient theme. It manifests in the present day as a battle between those who would grab our attention and our ability to control our own time. But the tension is this: how do I belong to this network without completely losing all agency within it? This is the same problem that tree roots face as they negotiate with fungal partners below ground, that microbes face in their chemical connections in the ocean, that our gut cells struggle with as they work with bacteria. There is no way out of this tension. We cannot live in complete openness or behind high walls. So we must engage and discern how to live within the network.

What I experience in my own life and in my work with students is that we’re often unconscious of just how vigorous the assaults on our attention have become. So, yes, we have shorter attention spans because we’re being invaded by the pathology of mind-grabbing micro-media. But we’re counter-evolving. I encounter a great hunger in my students to restore more control, more balance, so that we’re the ones choosing how our minutes, days, and lives will pass, not giving up that control to the algorithms of manipulation. Smelling the soil, talking to other people, holding an acorn in your hand, coming to know the sounds of birds and trees: these have great power once we wake to them, partly because they are such multi-sensory activities, engaging mind and emotion.

As for the decline in contact with the “natural world”, I’d argue that a computer screen is just as natural as a mountain stream. It has more of the human mind present within its development, but that mind is natural. So I’d prefer to talk about the decline in awakened contact with “the other”, with other species, other people. And for many, yes, our connection to other species is diminished in some ways. But in other ways there is more “environmental” education and awareness now than decades ago. And the direction of this trend differs depending on class and race. For working class people in urban or industrial landscapes, the opportunities for contact with green space are much expanded, at least here in the US. The upper classes and those who grew up in the countryside see their kids and grandkids losing out on the unleashed experience of play and exploration in woods and fields. In many cities, that opportunity is now expanded, not contracted.

“Our big human brains and delicate teeth evolved because wood made cooking possible. Other major technological and cultural advances also happened in relationship with trees: shelter, shafted tools, musical instruments, paper”

In the case of the rural southeastern US where Ray is writing, contact with the ecological community was, for generations, forced on people by slavery, share-cropping and poverty. That legacy is well remembered in some families. People left the fields and woods for a reason, and have little interest in a return, especially one mediated by the well-meaning wealthy white descendants of the land-owning classes. This is not true in regions away from the southeast US, but race and class deserve more attention as we discuss “nature”.

In Ray’s case I believe that the most important arc of her book is her exploration of what it means to grow up in ecological ignorance, to awaken to the extraordinary stories of her home, then to face the devastating knowledge that most of the ecological vitality of the region is gone, partly at the hands of one’s own ancestors and partly by economic forces that don’t give a damn about trees or people. It would be easy to paint a simple arc, but she resists this and shows us, indirectly through familial stories, how complex this process is. She connects history, religion, gender, economics, and ecology. Yes, she grew up with lots of outdoor time, but she also grew up with little understanding of where she was and what the place had been. This is a loss, only partly redeemable by later knowledge. In her awakening – one we all go through as we learn how diminished and wounded our homes and planet have become – she walks us through grief, anger, wonder, puzzlement, regret. Her writing does this without leaving us with an easy conclusion. Instead we get a fiery dream for the future.

That future is one where the longleaf pine forest might be restored. This forest once covered 90 million acres — about the same area as the UK and Ireland combined. The pines grew to great sizes, widely spaced in meadows kept open by regular fire. Plant diversity in the meadows was phenomenal. Now, only about 12,000 acres remain. The rest went to timber and turpentine, then was converted to monoculture tree farms and agricultural fields. Most of the loss happened in a few decades of the mid-late nineteenth century, a startlingly rapid loss. Of course, many of the plants and animals of the forest are now gone or critically endangered.

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In some areas the forest in being restored. But these hopeful signs should not blind us to the fact that, over much of the rural southeast, the pattern of ecological abuse of the land continues. In an article last year about a coal ash dump near her home, Ray wrote: “We are suffering out here in rural America. We are watching agrarian landscapes turned into industrial ones (giant clear-cuts, giant glyphosated fields, giant genetically engineered eucalyptus plantations), and we are watching the high quality of rural life, with its hummingbirds and purple martins, its trilliums and turnips, its streams and lakes, made toxic.” One reason The Ecology of a Cracker Childhood is so important is that the injustices and violence that she describes are still underway. The study of trees is not an escape into a natural wonderland, rather it’s a way to see what is beautiful and what is broken in the world, to try to find a way forward.

This point is central to many of the trees you visit in The Songs of Trees , including a giant ceibo in the Yasuni Biosphere reserve in Ecuador, though I must say your account left me feeling intensely anxious about its future.

Yes, this ceibo tree in the Amazon rainforest grows in the most biodiverse place on the face of the planet, a forest that is also home to several indigenous cultures, people who have lived there for thousands of years. All this is threatened by extraction of oil deposits under the forest. From the top of the ceibo tree I saw forest stretching to the horizon, but I could also hear generators and drills working in the forest.

Your second choice is the Handbook of Nature Study  by Anna Botsford Comstock. The first edition appeared in 1911 and was intended for primary school teachers. It reads like something from a gentler age, or at least the illusion of one.

Gentler in literary tone, but not in lived experience. In the US at the time, infant mortality rates were close to 10% for the first year of life and nearly 1% of births killed the mother. TB was endemic. So people understood that “nature” was, as Tennyson put it, “careless of the single life”, often quite dark.

Comstock’s book is important because she changed the course of education in the US, making the case for what we’d now call “environmental education” both through her writing and her advocacy for educational reform. She justified this work to her readers and funders (in agriculture schools) by noting that increased urbanization was drawing people away from relationship with the land. Alongside her instruction about particulars was an imperative to teachers and students: be curious, open your mind and senses to the many lives of other species around you.

“Contact with the ecological community was, for generations, forced on people by slavery, share-cropping and poverty… Race and class deserve more attention as we discuss ‘nature’”

Comstock writes with great precision of observation and respect for science while using personification of her subjects as a narrative technique. It’s hard to pull this off successfully. To modern ears her work is dated, especially on matters of gender and race, but, like Jean-Henri Fabre, she set the bar high for subsequent writers. To this day, there’s a temptation to either jump so far into anthropomorphism that we lose sight of the actual lives of the creatures we’re studying, or to erect walls of objectivity that deny our bodily and emotional kinship with other species.

Anthropomorphism—or at least the description of trees in terms we normally apply to human or animal life— is something you’ve also engaged in. In The Songs of Trees you write that a “forest throbs with the water-blood heartbeat of twigs…On sun-happy branches, systole and diastole surge and draw back, the forest’s subsonic hum.” 

Your third book is The New Sylva by Gabriel Hemery and Sarah Simblet. It’s a very British book and, though published in 2014, alludes to a work of 1664.

I chose this book first and foremost for Sarah Simblet’s spectacular ink drawings. Trees live at scales that are hard to represent. Their form is much larger than we readily apprehend with senses tuned to human scale (torso size, which is why bonsai is such an effective artform). But they’re also made of detail — bud scales, texture of twig bark, leaf edging — that is so small that our senses often skip over it. Simblet’s drawings speak very powerfully of the nature of each of her subjects. Through her work I understand and sense the trees, a very direct and profound experience. This comes across in the book plates and even more so in the originals that I saw at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Edinburgh. I learned afterward from her “note” in the book that she draws with a single steel-dip pen, often while holding the plant in her other hand. I suspect that this method allows deeper sensory understanding, more expansive observation. The use of a single pen is perhaps analogous to meditative technique, going deeper through material focus and simplicity.

Your fourth choice is David Hinton’s translation of Inner Chapters , a classic text of Taoism attributed to  Chuang Tzu, or Zhuangzi as he is known in pinyin. What does this have to do with trees?

Trees are not symbols or allegories in this foundational Taoist text. Rather, they’re examples of the true nature of life. Chuang Tzu’s Inner Chapters present a refreshingly ecological philosophy. In Chuang Tzu, the Earth is a “mighty mudball”, time is measured by the life-spans of ancient trees and ephemeral mushrooms, and human perception emerges from the quirks of our physiology and ecology.

All human philosophies are natural productions, but many philosophies paradoxically deny this. Our thoughts emerge like tree trunks and branches from roots in our nervous systems, so they’re just as wild and natural as any tree, bird, or bacterium. Yet these very thoughts imagine a separation from the rest of the community of life, a fracture caused by gods or by the sophistication of our culture, mind, and technology. Chuang Tzu punctures this inflated view using wit, paradox, irony, and exposition. He transmutes human exceptionalism into a humbler view, one informed by kinship and belonging on this Earth. Trees appear at pivotal moments in his stories, places where he makes clear that humans are of the earth.

Other traditions of course also have trees at the centre of their narratives — the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, The Bodhi tree under which Buddha was enlightened, the Norse Yggdrasil, the creation trees of the Amazon, even the evolutionary tree of Darwinian genealogy – a near-universal recognition of the importance of trees to our lives. Chuang Tzu seems to me to go deeper, actually listening to trees rather than using them only as symbols and narrative devices.

Listening is central to your project in The Songs of Trees.

Yes, I visited a dozen trees around the world to listen to their stories. By “listening” I mean literally tuning my ears (and some electronic sensors) to trees to hear their many sounds. I also mean listening to people whose lives are connected to each tree and scientists who have studied the lives of trees.

“Sound is a great way into tree lives: it passes around and through solid barriers, revealing what our eyes cannot see”

Your final choice is The Botany of Desire: A Plant’s-eye View of the World  (2001) by Michael Pollan. It’s been a while since I read this, but what I chiefly recall is his account of Johnny Appleseed, who in the early 19th century introduced apple trees across five or six American states. Why do you recommend this book? 

Pollan gives us a witty insight into a plant-centered view of evolution and ecology, flipping the usual human-focused narrative of the interaction between people and plants. Through the stories of four familiar plant species – apples, tulips, marijuana, and potatoes – he demolishes the “erroneous impression that we’re in charge”. We did not “domesticate” these species. Rather, the plants’ evolutionary nimbleness allowed them to insinuate themselves into human desire and so thrive. Human minds, emotions, and tastes are part of the environment to which plants adapt. Like bees guided to the work of pollination by petals and nectar, we’ve been willing and industrious servants of some plants’ needs.

Pollan’s account of the reciprocal web of relationships among plants and people takes our understanding of coevolution out of the specialized world of evolutionary theorists and into our everyday experience of orchard, forest, garden, and kitchen. In learning how apples spread from Kazakhstan, we understand how the fates of people and plants are conjoined across the world. In the interplay between plant evolution and human desire we see the future of forests: Humans have become world-changing bees. Plant evolution in the future will be largely a matter of adapting to and exploiting – or not, for many species – the proclivities of a hyper-abundant Great Ape.

July 13, 2017

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David George Haskell

David George Haskell is a biologist, conservationist and author. His latest book is Sounds Wild and Broken: Sonic Marvels, Evolution’s Creativity and the Crisis of Sensory Extinction . He is a a professor of biology and environmental studies at the University of the South in Sewanee, Texas.

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Identifying and classifying diagnostic errors in acute care across hospitals: early lessons from the Utility of Predictive Systems in Diagnostic Errors (UPSIDE) study. February 21, 2024

Expressing concern and writing it down: an experimental study investigating transfer of information at nursing handover. March 11, 2015

Development of medical checklists for improved quality of patient care. January 9, 2008

Nurse's Achilles Heel: using big data to determine workload factors that impact near misses. April 14, 2021

The impact of errors on healthcare professionals in the critical care setting. April 24, 2019

"July Effect": impact of the academic year-end changeover on patient outcomes. A systematic review. July 27, 2011

Cough and cold medication adverse events after market withdrawal and labeling revision. December 4, 2013

Predictors of completeness of patients' self-reported personal medication lists and discrepancies with clinic medication lists. December 11, 2013

Trigger alerts associated with laboratory abnormalities on identifying potentially preventable adverse drug events in the intensive care unit and general ward. August 1, 2018

The effect of hospitalist discontinuity on adverse events. March 25, 2015

Does learning from mistakes have to be painful? Analysis of 5 years' experience from the Leeds radiology educational cases meetings identifies common repetitive reporting errors and suggests acknowledging and celebrating excellence (ACE) as a more positive way of teaching the same lessons. August 28, 2019

I-CaRe: a case review tool focused on improving inpatient care. February 4, 2009

Avoiding wrong site surgery: a systematic review. May 26, 2010

Professional values and reported behaviours of doctors in the USA and UK: quantitative survey. April 6, 2011

Root cause analysis of serious adverse events among older patients in the Veterans Health Administration. May 28, 2014

Am I right when I am sure? Data consistency influences the relationship between diagnostic accuracy and certainty. April 2, 2014

The effects of the second victim phenomenon on work-related outcomes: connecting self-reported caregiver distress to turnover intentions and absenteeism. December 21, 2016

Impact of the Opioid Safety Initiative on opioid-related prescribing in veterans. March 22, 2017

A method for prioritizing interventions following root cause analysis (RCA): lessons from philosophy. January 14, 2015

Assessing the relationship between patient safety culture and EHR strategy. July 20, 2016

As she lay dying: how I fought to stop medical errors from killing my mom. December 12, 2012

Implementing receiver-driven handoffs to the emergency department to reduce miscommunication. June 3, 2020

Patient safety culture and the second victim phenomenon: connecting culture to staff distress in nurses. August 10, 2016

Opioid-related critical care resource use in US children's hospitals. March 28, 2018

Crowd-sourced hospital ratings are correlated with patient satisfaction but not surgical safety. June 9, 2021

Bridging the gap between culture and safety in a critical care context: the role of work debate spaces. August 26, 2020

Consensus building for development of outpatient adverse drug event triggers. June 15, 2011

Patient self-medication--a change in hospital practice. August 23, 2006

Intervening in interruptions: what exactly is the risk we are trying to manage? October 11, 2017

Medicine for the wandering mind: mind wandering in medical practice. December 21, 2011

Body CT: technical advances for improving safety. August 3, 2011

Confidential clinician-reported surveillance of adverse events among medical inpatients. March 27, 2005

Improving handoffs in the perioperative environment: a conceptual framework of key theories, system factors, methods, and core interventions to ensure success. July 19, 2023

Abusive supervision: a systematic review and fundamental rethink. December 8, 2021

Implementation and sustainability of a medication reconciliation toolkit: a mixed methods evaluation. August 5, 2020

Patient safety perspectives of providers and nurses: the experience of a rural ambulatory care practice using an EHR with e-prescribing. November 13, 2013

Medication discrepancy rates and sources upon nursing home intake: a prospective study. April 6, 2022

Adversarial attacks on medical machine learning. April 3, 2019

Role of clinical context in residents' physical examination diagnostic accuracy. April 13, 2011

Pediatric vaccination errors: application of the "5 rights" framework to a national error reporting database. July 29, 2009

The disparity of frontline clinical staff and managers' perceptions of a quality and patient safety initiative. September 15, 2010

Organisational readiness: exploring the preconditions for success in organisation-wide patient safety improvement programmes. April 7, 2010

Medical engagement in organisation-wide safety and quality-improvement programmes: experience in the UK Safer Patients Initiative. July 21, 2010

Perceptions of the impact of a large-scale collaborative improvement programme: experience in the UK Safer Patients Initiative. July 8, 2009

Pain states, the opioid epidemic, and the role of radiologists. April 4, 2018

Factors affecting patient safety culture among dental healthcare workers: A nationwide cross-sectional survey October 16, 2019

The computerized rounding report: implementation of a model system to support transitions of care. August 3, 2011

Real-time clinical alerting: effect of an automated paging system on response time to critical laboratory values—a randomised controlled trial. April 14, 2010

Elevated mortality among weekend hospital admissions is not associated with adoption of seven day clinical standards. December 6, 2017

Development of trigger tools for surveillance of adverse events in ambulatory surgery. November 10, 2010

A multidisciplinary team approach to retained foreign objects. March 4, 2009

Increasing the use of 'smart' pump drug libraries by nurses: a continuous quality improvement project. February 29, 2012

Potential safety gaps in order entry and automated drug alerts: a nationwide survey of VA physician self-reported practices with computerized order entry. June 22, 2011

Patient safety in obstetrics and gynecology: an agenda for the future. November 15, 2006

The accuracy of the Global Trigger Tool is higher for the identification of adverse events of greater harm: a diagnostic test study. March 22, 2023

Operating room–to-ICU patient handovers: a multidisciplinary human-centered design approach. August 31, 2016

Applying trigger tools to detect adverse events associated with outpatient surgery. March 16, 2011

Clinician perspectives on the management of abnormal subcritical tests in an urban academic safety-net health care system. October 4, 2017

Medication discrepancies in integrated electronic health records. December 12, 2012

Checklists improve experts' diagnostic decisions. April 17, 2013

Finding and fixing mistakes: do checklists work for clinicians with different levels of experience? May 22, 2013

Twelve tips on engaging learners in checking health care decisions. December 11, 2013

Designing and implementing a comprehensive quality and patient safety management model: a paradigm for perioperative improvement. June 4, 2008

Medication errors during medical emergencies in a large, tertiary care, academic medical center. June 13, 2012

Medication reconciliation campaign in a clinic for homeless patients. April 4, 2012

Missed diagnosis of critical congenital heart disease. October 22, 2008

Association between measured teamwork and medical errors: an observational study of prehospital care in the USA December 11, 2019

Racial and ethnic differences in emergency department diagnostic imaging at US Children's Hospitals, 2016-2019. January 4, 2021

Tracking progress in improving diagnosis: a framework for defining undesirable diagnostic events. February 14, 2018

Measuring and improving diagnostic safety in primary care: addressing the “twin” pandemics of diagnostic error and clinician burnout. March 3, 2021

Between choice and chance: the role of human factors in acute care equipment decisions. July 1, 2009

Improving the quality of health care: what's taking so long? October 23, 2013

Reasons for repeat rapid response team calls, and associations with in-hospital mortality. February 6, 2019

Informing the design of a new pragmatic registry to stimulate near miss reporting in ambulatory care. March 15, 2017

Improving reliability of clinical care practices for ventilated patients in the context of a patient safety improvement initiative. October 6, 2010

The relationship between physician practice characteristics and physician adoption of electronic health records. January 13, 2010

National Action Plan for Adverse Drug Event Prevention: recommendations for safer outpatient opioid use. February 1, 2017

A facilitated survey instrument captures significantly more anesthesia events than does traditional voluntary event reporting. December 12, 2007

Hospital nurses' work environment characteristics and patient safety outcomes: a literature review. October 12, 2016

A system-wide hospital child maltreatment patient safety program. September 8, 2021

Exploring physician perspectives of residency holdover handoffs: a qualitative study to understand an increasingly important type of handoff. August 2, 2017

Exploring the causes of COPD misdiagnosis in primary care: a mixed methods study. April 10, 2024

Characteristics and contributing factors of diagnostic error in surgery: analysis of closed medico-legal cases and complaints in Canada. April 3, 2024

How do patients and care partners describe diagnostic uncertainty in an emergency department or urgent care setting? March 13, 2024

The effect of visitation restrictions on ED error. March 6, 2024

The TeamSTEPPS for Improving Diagnosis Team Assessment Tool: scale development and psychometric evaluation. February 7, 2024

Low rate of completion of recommended tests and referrals in an academic primary care practice with resident trainees. January 31, 2024

The power of written word: reflection reduces errors of omission. October 4, 2023

From battles to burnout: investigating the role of interphysician conflict in physician burnout. September 20, 2023

Patient and family contributions to improve the diagnostic process through the OurDX electronic health record tool: a mixed method analysis. September 13, 2023

WebM&M Cases

Experimental evidence for structured information-sharing networks reducing medical errors. August 9, 2023

Burden of serious harms from diagnostic error in the USA. July 28, 2023

Evidence for anchoring bias during physician decision-making. July 12, 2023

Clinician factors associated with delayed diagnosis of appendicitis. July 5, 2023

Patient Safety Innovations

Preventing Falls Through Patient and Family Engagement to Create Customized Prevention Plans

Identification of patient safety threats in a post-intensive care clinic. May 31, 2023

Danger in discharge summaries: abbreviations create confusion for both author and recipient. May 31, 2023

Annual Perspective

Enhancing Support for Patients’ Social Needs to Reduce Hospital Readmissions and Improve Health Outcomes

Risk assessment of the acute stroke diagnostic process using failure modes, effects, and criticality analysis. March 1, 2023

Diagnostic delays among COVID-19 patients with a second concurrent diagnosis. February 22, 2023

Effect of contextual factors on the prevalence of diagnostic errors among patients managed by physicians of the same specialty: a single-centre retrospective observational study. February 8, 2023

Patient and hospital characteristics associated with delayed diagnosis of appendicitis. February 1, 2023

Complexity and challenges of the clinical diagnosis and management of Long COVID. November 30, 2022

Cognitive biases encountered by physicians in the emergency room. November 9, 2022

Misdiagnosis of thoracic aortic emergencies occurs frequently among transfers to aortic referral centers: an analysis of over 3700 patients. October 12, 2022

Analysis of variation between diagnosis at admission vs discharge and clinical outcomes among adults with possible bacteremia. July 13, 2022

Factors associated with malpractice claim payout: an analysis of closed emergency department claims. July 13, 2022

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Whales and Dolphins Are Now Partly Made of Plastic: Study

Whales and dolphins are now partly made of plastic due to pollution in the ocean, a study has found.

The study published by a graduate student at Duke University in Environmental Pollution found that of those studied, two-thirds of marine mammals had microscopic plastic particles embedded into their fats and lungs.

Samples from 32 stranded mammals in Alaska, California and North Carolina, between 2000 to 2021—or those used for meat—were assessed in the study. In total, 12 species were studied, including a bearded seal.

Scientists already know that plastic pollution is a major risk to the ocean's wildlife, but the new study suggests that when ingested, microplastics can travel through the digestive tract and get lodged in tissues along the way.

Three kinds of fats plus lungs were assessed—plastics were found in all four tissues.

"This is an extra burden on top of everything else they face: climate change, pollution, noise, and now they're not only ingesting plastic and contending with the big pieces in their stomachs, they're also being internalized," Greg Merrill Jr., a fifth-year graduate student at the Duke University Marine Lab, said in a press release. "Some proportion of their mass is now plastic."

It is not yet certain what effect the plastic will have on the animals, but it is possible it affects hormones and endocrines.

The study said the plastics potentially act as a hormone mimics, and disrupt the endocrine glands.

Plastics are lipophilic, meaning they are attracted to fats. This could be the reason why they became easily lodged in the whale's fat.

The plastic measured from 198 microns to 537 microns, the study reported. To get an idea of its size, the study reported that a human hair is about 100 microns in diameter.

"Now that we know plastic is in these tissues, we're looking at what the metabolic impact might be," Merrill said in the release.

To continue his research, Merrill will run toxicology tests on the plastic.

"We haven't done the math, but most of the microplastics probably do pass through the gut and get defecated. But some proportion of it is ending up in the animals' tissues," Merrill said. "For me, this just underscores the ubiquity of ocean plastics and the scale of this problem. Some of these samples date back to 2001. Like, this has been happening for at least 20 years."

The findings support a Nature Communications study published in 2022 that said a blue whale could be swallowing 95 pounds of plastic waste per day in the Pacific Ocean off California.

According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, about 8 million metric tons of plastic is estimated to have entered the ocean in 2010.

The plastic has serious effects on marine life. If ingested, it can cause animals to starve as they are full of plastic. Wildlife can also choke on plastic, which can strangle the animal when it becomes trapped around their neck.

The most common type of plastic found in the tissues was polyester fibers, which are commonly found as a byproduct of laundry machines, the new study reported.

Do you have a tip on a science story that Newsweek should be covering? Do you have a question about plastic pollution? Let us know via [email protected].

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• Top 5 Plastic Waste Items Found on Beaches—The Worst Is Not What You Think
• Scientists Warn Toxic Microplastics Now Getting Stuck in Our Airways

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Analytical Methods

Three-dimensional hotspot structures constructed from nanoporous gold with v-cavity and gold nanoparticles for surface-enhanced raman scattering.

The intensity and sensitivity of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectra are highly dependent on the consistency and homogeneity of the nanomaterials. In this study, we developed a large-area three-dimensional (3D) hotspot substrate with good homogeneity and reproducibility in SERS signals. The substrate is based on the synergistic structures of nanoporous gold (NPG) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The NPG was combined with a periodic V-shaped nanocavity array to create a nanoporous gold with V-cavity (NPGVC) array featuring uniform hotspots. A nanoporous gold V-shaped resonant cavity (NPGVRC) structure was developed by incorporating AuNPs into the NPGVC array. The coupling action between the AuNPs and NPGVC resulted in a SERS-enhanced electromagnetic field with 3D hotspot distribution. The strategic incorporation of NPG and V-cavity array significantly expanded the surface area available for analyte adsorption and interaction with AuNPs. Using rhodamine 6G (R6G) and malachite green (MG) as probe molecules, the SERS performance was investigated, and the NPGVRC substrate not only showed excellent enhancement with the limit of detection as low as 10-11 M, but also presented good homogeneity. NPGVRC was then used for biological detection of the influenza A virus, where we acquired and examined the characteristic SERS spectra of two spike proteins. It is demonstrated that there is significant potential for our proposed SERS platform to be used in biosensors.

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Y. Xu, Y. Wu, J. Wei, P. Xue and Y. Zhao, Anal. Methods , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4AY00348A

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