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Literature reviews: criticality.

  • Criticality

Express Critical Analysis

The literature review of a dissertation should include critical analysis. You cannot simply juxtapose the literature you find: you have to  evaluate and draw conclusions from it.  

Paragraph level  

Try expressing your voice in each paragraph of your literature review. Write strong paragraphs. In strong paragraphs your voice can be heard in the topic sentence, development (where you analyse and compare/contrast the sources, sometimes as individual pieces, sometimes in a synthesis) and, even more easily, in the concluding sentence, where you present the "therefore" of the paragraph. 

How to express criticality at the paragraph level:  

Identify the significance of the sources, and why the points they are making are relevant  

Make connections between the sources 

Compare and contrast sources, literatures  

Accept/adopt points made by the sources, with reasons  

Reject the points made by the sources, with reasons (e.g., limitations in the methodology; out of date; limited scope; geographical delimitation) 

Indicate the position you are taking in your own work on the theories and concepts presented by the sources 

Show how limitations in the existing literature create a research gap for you 

Organise the materials, synthesising them in an original way, that sheds new light on the topic.  

To find out more about paragraph writing, check out the Assignment Writing Guides.

  

Literature review level 

Try to take ownership of the literature review. Remember the purposes of the review (providing background on the subject you are researching and identifying a gap in the existing literature on this subject). Thus, throughout the review:   

Identify the key themes relevant to your subject matter  

Identify the most logical and effective order for your themes 

Relate the sources back to the dissertation's research question 

Shed new light on the topic 

Draw conclusions on the existing literature  

Identify gaps in the literature  

Your literature review should present an argument (which you can recap in the concluding paragraph of the literature review). For instance, 

"The literature says/illustrates/reveals that... there are debates in the literature as of... it can be understood from the literature that... however, there are gaps in the literature... the literature does not specifically address (specific sector/location/population)... there is a lack of independent/recent studies on...  therefore in order to answer the research question(s) (you can repeat the question) this dissertation uses method xyz, as illustrated in the next section (if applicable)". 

Manchester University’s  academic phrase bank  is a great resource for learning new words and phrases. 

Extra Resources

For extra help with all aspects of study skills including how to undertake literature reviews, appointments are available with learning advisors on Engage. 

Appointments are also available with an Academic Engagement Librarian to discuss any issues you might be having with research.

  • << Previous: Synthesis
  • Last Updated: Nov 18, 2023 10:56 PM
  • URL: https://libguides.westminster.ac.uk/literature-reviews

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Critical Analysis in a Literature Review

Critical Analysis in a Literature Review

3-minute read

  • 29th June 2015

A literature review is vital to any in-depth research , providing a foundation your work will build upon. Familiarizing yourself with the existing literature allows you to identify current debates in the field, ensuring that your work is up-to-date and addresses significant questions.

But a good literature review will require reading critically. This means deciding whether you agree or disagree with certain viewpoints, arguments and theories, rather than simply describing them.

It also requires being able to spot the flaws and strengths of particular studies, which can in turn help when developing your own ideas. To make sure you do this effectively, it’s worth looking for the following things.

1. Overgeneralizations

One common issue in research is the scope of its application, especially when dealing with limited sample sizes or when a study is generalized too broadly.

The conclusions of a psychological study conducted with all male participants, for instance, may not be applicable in the same way to female subjects.

2. Methodological Limitations

When writing a literature review, ask yourself whether the methods used for particular studies were appropriate.

For example, whether the study used a quantitative, qualitative or mixed-methods research design can make a big difference to the conclusions reached.

3. How Well Explained is the Research?

When reading for a critical literature review, it is important to consider how well written the studies you examine are.

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Does the author explain their methods? Is enough detail provided for any experiments to be replicated? Are sampling, data collection and analysis techniques clearly identified? Does the conclusion follow from the results?

Asking these and similar questions will help you discern between good and bad research.

4. Identify Biases

Another important factor is to consider whether implicit biases might have influenced the research.

The term “confirmation bias,” for example, refers to the tendency to focus on evidence which supports one’s existing beliefs, which can lead to overlooking alternative hypotheses.

5. Challenge Your Own Assumptions

If you come across a study which seems to oppose your hypothesis, consider whether it presents good counterarguments to your own position. If it does, ask yourself whether this affects how you conduct the rest of your research.

The final point here is important because conducting a literature review serves two purposes . The finished literature review will help your reader to understand the background of your research, so critical analysis helps to clarify what your work contributes to the debate.

But comparing different studies and theories for a literature review will also help you to develop a research approach. The better your critical analysis, then, the better prepared you’ll be.

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what is critical analysis of literature review

  • University of Oregon Libraries
  • Research Guides

How to Write a Literature Review

  • 5. Critically Analyze and Evaluate
  • Literature Reviews: A Recap
  • Reading Journal Articles
  • Does it Describe a Literature Review?
  • 1. Identify the Question
  • 2. Review Discipline Styles
  • Searching Article Databases
  • Finding Full-Text of an Article
  • Citation Chaining
  • When to Stop Searching
  • 4. Manage Your References

Critically analyze and evaluate

Tip: read and annotate pdfs.

  • 6. Synthesize
  • 7. Write a Literature Review

Chat

Ask yourself questions like these about each book or article you include:

  • What is the research question?
  • What is the primary methodology used?
  • How was the data gathered?
  • How is the data presented?
  • What are the main conclusions?
  • Are these conclusions reasonable?
  • What theories are used to support the researcher's conclusions?

Take notes on the articles as you read them and identify any themes or concepts that may apply to your research question.

This sample template (below) may also be useful for critically reading and organizing your articles. Or you can use this online form and email yourself a copy .

  • Sample Template for Critical Analysis of the Literature

Opening an article in PDF format in Acrobat Reader will allow you to use "sticky notes" and "highlighting" to make notes on the article without printing it out. Make sure to save the edited file so you don't lose your notes!

Some Citation Managers like Mendeley also have highlighting and annotation features.Here's a screen capture of a pdf in Mendeley with highlighting, notes, and various colors:

Screen capture of Mendeley desktop showing note, highlight, and color tools. Tips include adding notes and highlighting, and using different colors for other purposes like quotations

Screen capture from a UO Librarian's Mendeley Desktop app

  • Learn more about citation management software in the previous step: 4. Manage Your References
  • << Previous: 4. Manage Your References
  • Next: 6. Synthesize >>
  • Last Updated: Jan 10, 2024 4:46 PM
  • URL: https://researchguides.uoregon.edu/litreview

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  • Research Guides

Literature Reviews - Research Guide

  • Critical Reading and Analysis
  • Literature Reviews Home
  • Planning your Review & EBP
  • Searching for Literature
  • Managing your Results
  • Writing your Review
  • Systematic Literature Reviews
  • Systematic Reviews

Critical Reading & Analysis

  • Critical Reading
  • Analysing Sources

Author Analysis

  • Journal Analysis
  • Note Taking

A critical reader:​ ​

  • Does not believe everything they read​ ​
  • Questions what they read​ ​
  • Rereads if necessary​ ​
  • Understands the influence of style​ ​
  • Analyses arguments​ ​
  • Discounts arguments that are unsupported or based on faulty reasoning

When reading critically, focus on the purpose of your literature review:

  • Think about what you expect from the article or chapter, before reading it
  • Skim the abstract, headings, conclusion, and the first sentence of each paragraph
  • Focus on the arguments presented rather than facts
  • Take notes as you read and start to organise your review around themes and ideas
  • Consider using a table, matrix or concept map to identify how the different sources relate to each other
  • Note four to six points for each study that summarises the main points and conclusions
  • Be as objective as possible

Critical Appraisal

Critical appraisal is the process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its credibility, its value and its relevance in a specific context.

The aim of critical appraisal is to understand the strengths, weaknesses, and potential for bias in the research. Validity, applicability, and clinical importance should be considered during critical appraisal to ensure that research evidence is used reliably and efficiently and false conclusions are not drawn.

Why do we need to critically appraise the literature?

Critical appraisal is necessary to:

  • Assess benefits and strengths for research against flaws and weaknesses
  • Decide whether studies have been undertaken in a way that makes their findings reliable
  • Make sense of the result
  • Know what these results mean in the context of the clinical decision being made
  • Assess the usefulness of  the evidence for clinical decisions

Analysing your sources

Abstract : this is what the author wants the reader to take away from their article - what is the starting point? ​ ​

Introduction : provides background and a starting point - how does it guide the reader?​ ​

Materials and methods : often overlooked but very important - is the methodology understandable, reproducible, direct and robust?

Results : summary and analysis of the data but the statistical reporting is just as important as the words ​ ​             - what do the tables, figures and legends actually report? ​ ​             - what do you think the data means?* ​ ​             * decide before reading the discussion​ ​

Discussion : author draws conclusions – how does this correlate with your conclusions?

The  Measuring Research Quality and Impact Research Guide - Research Impact  has more detailed information on analytics.

Evaluation:

Consider the following criteria:

Were the objectives achieved? ​ ​

Hypotheses tested? ​ ​

How do these results relate to other studies you have found?​ ​

Do the authors openly discuss any limitations of their study?​ ​

What else needs be studied in the future?

Interpretation:

Read critically​ ​

Note 2-4 bullet points for each study that summarises the main points and conclusions​ ​

Use matrix to analyse findings, relevance and importance of each text​ ​

Draw attention to studies that are important, influential or that bring a new understanding or method of studying your area of research

  • Literature Analysis Worksheet
  • Literature Review Matrix

Citation Analysis

Citation Analysis is the process whereby the impact or "quality" of an article is assessed by counting the number of times other authors mention it in their work.​ ​

Citation analysis involves counting the number of times an article is cited by other works to measure the impact of a publication or author. The caveat however, is that there is no single citation analysis tool that collects all publications and their cited references. For a thorough analysis of the impact of an author or a publication, look in multiple databases to find all possible cited references.​ ​

The  Measuring Research Quality and Impact Research Guide - Research Impact  has more detailed information on citation analytics.

Databases such as Scopus and Web of Science can be used to:

  • locate the papers of a specific author
  • compare the research output of more than one author

The  Measuring Research Quality and Impact Research Guide - Research Impact has more detailed information on author analytics.

The h -index

Note: 

  • The h -index is not a static value – if discussing an author’s h-index, you need to specify the date on which the h -index was calculated.
  • The h -index is also calculated by other databases/resources and may vary from the h -index given by Scopus – if discussing an author’s h -index, you need to specify the source of the h-index.

To locate papers of an author in Scopus:

Scopus Training Videos

Discover prolific authors on a topic | How to search for authors by topic

Assess an author’s impact | How to assess an author's impact

Keep track of another author’s activity | How to keep track of an author

Investigate another author’s citations | How to create citation overviews in Scopus

Web of Science Core Collection

To locate papers of an author in Web of Science Core Collection (WoS CC):

Source / Journal Analysis

Databases such as Scopus and Web of Science  (including CAB Abstracts ) can be used to determine the quality of journals in a discipline or field of research.

The  Measuring Research Quality and Impact Research Guide - Research Impact has more detailed information on journal analytics.

To search for journals on a subject

To compare  journals or source publications

Scopus  Training Videos

How to compare sources

Overview of journal metrics in Scopus

CiteScore metrics in Scopus

The Scopus Search Guide  clearly describes how to search for papers on a subject or specific papers.

The Web of Science Core Collection Quick Guide clearly describes how to search for papers on a subject or specific papers.

Note taking 

Taking clear, legible notes will help to focus your critical reading and analysis of your literature review sources. When taking notes, avoid plagiarism by:

  •  keeping track of the difference between information from your sources and from your own ideas
  •  providing clear references, including page numbers

Note taking methods

Some effective methods of note-taking include:

  • Outlining method: Use headings, sub-headings and bullet points to organize topics
  • Cornell method: Use two columns - in one column write your summary of the authors' conclusions and evidence, and in the other column write down your own analysis and other comments
  • Charting method: Create a list of topics or points you want to write about - use a column for each one. As you read, add references and make notes in the appropriate column
  • Sentence method: Simply write down new ideas and bits of information as a numbered  sentence
  • Mapping method: Write down key concepts and terms, with related ideas radiating out from these

You may consider using the matrix below for your note taking and analysis:

Critical Reading & Analysis Checklist

  • Does your literature review highlight flaws, gaps, or shortcomings of specific texts or groups of texts?
  • Have you identified areas that have not yet been researched or have not yet been researched sufficiently?
  • Does the literature demonstrate a change over time or recent developments that make your research relevant now?
  • Are you able to discuss research methods used to study this topic and/or related topics?
  • Can you clearly state why your research is necessary?
  • << Previous: Managing your Results
  • Next: Writing your Review >>
  • Last Updated: Feb 16, 2024 10:57 AM
  • URL: https://libguides.murdoch.edu.au/LitReview
  • UConn Library
  • Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide
  • Introduction

Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide — Introduction

  • Getting Started
  • How to Pick a Topic
  • Strategies to Find Sources
  • Evaluating Sources & Lit. Reviews
  • Tips for Writing Literature Reviews
  • Writing Literature Review: Useful Sites
  • Citation Resources
  • Other Academic Writings

What are Literature Reviews?

So, what is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries." Taylor, D.  The literature review: A few tips on conducting it . University of Toronto Health Sciences Writing Centre.

Goals of Literature Reviews

What are the goals of creating a Literature Review?  A literature could be written to accomplish different aims:

  • To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
  • To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
  • Identify a problem in a field of research 

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews .  Review of General Psychology , 1 (3), 311-320.

What kinds of sources require a Literature Review?

  • A research paper assigned in a course
  • A thesis or dissertation
  • A grant proposal
  • An article intended for publication in a journal

All these instances require you to collect what has been written about your research topic so that you can demonstrate how your own research sheds new light on the topic.

Types of Literature Reviews

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.

  • Example : Predictors and Outcomes of U.S. Quality Maternity Leave: A Review and Conceptual Framework:  10.1177/08948453211037398  

Systematic review : "The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find." (p. 139). Nelson, L. K. (2013). Research in Communication Sciences and Disorders . Plural Publishing.

  • Example : The effect of leave policies on increasing fertility: a systematic review:  10.1057/s41599-022-01270-w

Meta-analysis : "Meta-analysis is a method of reviewing research findings in a quantitative fashion by transforming the data from individual studies into what is called an effect size and then pooling and analyzing this information. The basic goal in meta-analysis is to explain why different outcomes have occurred in different studies." (p. 197). Roberts, M. C., & Ilardi, S. S. (2003). Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . Blackwell Publishing.

  • Example : Employment Instability and Fertility in Europe: A Meta-Analysis:  10.1215/00703370-9164737

Meta-synthesis : "Qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic." (p.312). Zimmer, L. (2006). Qualitative meta-synthesis: A question of dialoguing with texts .  Journal of Advanced Nursing , 53 (3), 311-318.

  • Example : Women’s perspectives on career successes and barriers: A qualitative meta-synthesis:  10.1177/05390184221113735

Literature Reviews in the Health Sciences

  • UConn Health subject guide on systematic reviews Explanation of the different review types used in health sciences literature as well as tools to help you find the right review type
  • << Previous: Getting Started
  • Next: How to Pick a Topic >>
  • Last Updated: Sep 21, 2022 2:16 PM
  • URL: https://guides.lib.uconn.edu/literaturereview

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Literature Reviews

Introduction, what is a literature review.

  • Literature Reviews for Thesis or Dissertation
  • Stand-alone and Systemic Reviews
  • Purposes of a Literature Review
  • Texts on Conducting a Literature Review
  • Identifying the Research Topic
  • The Persuasive Argument
  • Searching the Literature
  • Creating a Synthesis
  • Critiquing the Literature
  • Building the Case for the Literature Review Document
  • Presenting the Literature Review

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Literature Reviews by Lawrence A. Machi , Brenda T. McEvoy LAST REVIEWED: 21 April 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 27 October 2016 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0169

Literature reviews play a foundational role in the development and execution of a research project. They provide access to the academic conversation surrounding the topic of the proposed study. By engaging in this scholarly exercise, the researcher is able to learn and to share knowledge about the topic. The literature review acts as the springboard for new research, in that it lays out a logically argued case, founded on a comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge about the topic. The case produced provides the justification for the research question or problem of a proposed study, and the methodological scheme best suited to conduct the research. It can also be a research project in itself, arguing policy or practice implementation, based on a comprehensive analysis of the research in a field. The term literature review can refer to the output or the product of a review. It can also refer to the process of Conducting a Literature Review . Novice researchers, when attempting their first research projects, tend to ask two questions: What is a Literature Review? How do you do one? While this annotated bibliography is neither definitive nor exhaustive in its treatment of the subject, it is designed to provide a beginning researcher, who is pursuing an academic degree, an entry point for answering the two previous questions. The article is divided into two parts. The first four sections of the article provide a general overview of the topic. They address definitions, types, purposes, and processes for doing a literature review. The second part presents the process and procedures for doing a literature review. Arranged in a sequential fashion, the remaining eight sections provide references addressing each step of the literature review process. References included in this article were selected based on their ability to assist the beginning researcher. Additionally, the authors attempted to include texts from various disciplines in social science to present various points of view on the subject.

Novice researchers often have a misguided perception of how to do a literature review and what the document should contain. Literature reviews are not narrative annotated bibliographies nor book reports (see Bruce 1994 ). Their form, function, and outcomes vary, due to how they depend on the research question, the standards and criteria of the academic discipline, and the orthodoxies of the research community charged with the research. The term literature review can refer to the process of doing a review as well as the product resulting from conducting a review. The product resulting from reviewing the literature is the concern of this section. Literature reviews for research studies at the master’s and doctoral levels have various definitions. Machi and McEvoy 2016 presents a general definition of a literature review. Lambert 2012 defines a literature review as a critical analysis of what is known about the study topic, the themes related to it, and the various perspectives expressed regarding the topic. Fink 2010 defines a literature review as a systematic review of existing body of data that identifies, evaluates, and synthesizes for explicit presentation. Jesson, et al. 2011 defines the literature review as a critical description and appraisal of a topic. Hart 1998 sees the literature review as producing two products: the presentation of information, ideas, data, and evidence to express viewpoints on the nature of the topic, as well as how it is to be investigated. When considering literature reviews beyond the novice level, Ridley 2012 defines and differentiates the systematic review from literature reviews associated with primary research conducted in academic degree programs of study, including stand-alone literature reviews. Cooper 1998 states the product of literature review is dependent on the research study’s goal and focus, and defines synthesis reviews as literature reviews that seek to summarize and draw conclusions from past empirical research to determine what issues have yet to be resolved. Theoretical reviews compare and contrast the predictive ability of theories that explain the phenomenon, arguing which theory holds the most validity in describing the nature of that phenomenon. Grant and Booth 2009 identified fourteen types of reviews used in both degree granting and advanced research projects, describing their attributes and methodologies.

Bruce, Christine Susan. 1994. Research students’ early experiences of the dissertation literature review. Studies in Higher Education 19.2: 217–229.

DOI: 10.1080/03075079412331382057

A phenomenological analysis was conducted with forty-one neophyte research scholars. The responses to the questions, “What do you mean when you use the words literature review?” and “What is the meaning of a literature review for your research?” identified six concepts. The results conclude that doing a literature review is a problem area for students.

Cooper, Harris. 1998. Synthesizing research . Vol. 2. 3d ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

The introductory chapter of this text provides a cogent explanation of Cooper’s understanding of literature reviews. Chapter 4 presents a comprehensive discussion of the synthesis review. Chapter 5 discusses meta-analysis and depth.

Fink, Arlene. 2010. Conducting research literature reviews: From the Internet to paper . 3d ed. Los Angeles: SAGE.

The first chapter of this text (pp. 1–16) provides a short but clear discussion of what a literature review is in reference to its application to a broad range of social sciences disciplines and their related professions.

Grant, Maria J., and Andrew Booth. 2009. A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information & Libraries Journal 26.2: 91–108. Print.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x

This article reports a scoping review that was conducted using the “Search, Appraisal, Synthesis, and Analysis” (SALSA) framework. Fourteen literature review types and associated methodology make up the resulting typology. Each type is described by its key characteristics and analyzed for its strengths and weaknesses.

Hart, Chris. 1998. Doing a literature review: Releasing the social science research imagination . London: SAGE.

Chapter 1 of this text explains Hart’s definition of a literature review. Additionally, it describes the roles of the literature review, the skills of a literature reviewer, and the research context for a literature review. Of note is Hart’s discussion of the literature review requirements for master’s degree and doctoral degree work.

Jesson, Jill, Lydia Matheson, and Fiona M. Lacey. 2011. Doing your literature review: Traditional and systematic techniques . Los Angeles: SAGE.

Chapter 1: “Preliminaries” provides definitions of traditional and systematic reviews. It discusses the differences between them. Chapter 5 is dedicated to explaining the traditional review, while Chapter 7 explains the systematic review. Chapter 8 provides a detailed description of meta-analysis.

Lambert, Mike. 2012. A beginner’s guide to doing your education research project . Los Angeles: SAGE.

Chapter 6 (pp. 79–100) presents a thumbnail sketch for doing a literature review.

Machi, Lawrence A., and Brenda T. McEvoy. 2016. The literature review: Six steps to success . 3d ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

The introduction of this text differentiates between a simple and an advanced review and concisely defines a literature review.

Ridley, Diana. 2012. The literature review: A step-by-step guide for students . 2d ed. Sage Study Skills. London: SAGE.

In the introductory chapter, Ridley reviews many definitions of the literature review, literature reviews at the master’s and doctoral level, and placement of literature reviews within the thesis or dissertation document. She also defines and differentiates literature reviews produced for degree-affiliated research from the more advanced systematic review projects.

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  • How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

  • Search for relevant literature
  • Evaluate sources
  • Identify themes, debates, and gaps
  • Outline the structure
  • Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

  • Quick Run-through
  • Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

  • Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
  • Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
  • Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
  • Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
  • Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Literature review guide

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

  • Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
  • Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
  • Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
  • Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

  • Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
  • Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
  • Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

  • Your university’s library catalogue
  • Google Scholar
  • Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
  • Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
  • EconLit (economics)
  • Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

  • What question or problem is the author addressing?
  • What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
  • What are the key theories, models, and methods?
  • Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
  • What are the results and conclusions of the study?
  • How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
  • What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

  • Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
  • Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
  • Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
  • Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
  • Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

  • Most research has focused on young women.
  • There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
  • But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

  • Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
  • Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
  • Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

  • Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
  • Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
  • Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
  • Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • Sampling methods
  • Simple random sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Cluster sampling
  • Likert scales
  • Reproducibility

 Statistics

  • Null hypothesis
  • Statistical power
  • Probability distribution
  • Effect size
  • Poisson distribution

Research bias

  • Optimism bias
  • Cognitive bias
  • Implicit bias
  • Hawthorne effect
  • Anchoring bias
  • Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

  • To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
  • To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
  • To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
  • To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
  • To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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Systematic Reviews

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What Makes a Systematic Review Different from Other Types of Reviews?

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Reproduced from Grant, M. J. and Booth, A. (2009), A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 26: 91–108. doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x

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Approaching literature review for academic purposes: The Literature Review Checklist

Debora f.b. leite.

I Departamento de Ginecologia e Obstetricia, Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP, BR

II Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, PE, BR

III Hospital das Clinicas, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, PE, BR

Maria Auxiliadora Soares Padilha

Jose g. cecatti.

A sophisticated literature review (LR) can result in a robust dissertation/thesis by scrutinizing the main problem examined by the academic study; anticipating research hypotheses, methods and results; and maintaining the interest of the audience in how the dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field. Unfortunately, little guidance is available on elaborating LRs, and writing an LR chapter is not a linear process. An LR translates students’ abilities in information literacy, the language domain, and critical writing. Students in postgraduate programs should be systematically trained in these skills. Therefore, this paper discusses the purposes of LRs in dissertations and theses. Second, the paper considers five steps for developing a review: defining the main topic, searching the literature, analyzing the results, writing the review and reflecting on the writing. Ultimately, this study proposes a twelve-item LR checklist. By clearly stating the desired achievements, this checklist allows Masters and Ph.D. students to continuously assess their own progress in elaborating an LR. Institutions aiming to strengthen students’ necessary skills in critical academic writing should also use this tool.

INTRODUCTION

Writing the literature review (LR) is often viewed as a difficult task that can be a point of writer’s block and procrastination ( 1 ) in postgraduate life. Disagreements on the definitions or classifications of LRs ( 2 ) may confuse students about their purpose and scope, as well as how to perform an LR. Interestingly, at many universities, the LR is still an important element in any academic work, despite the more recent trend of producing scientific articles rather than classical theses.

The LR is not an isolated section of the thesis/dissertation or a copy of the background section of a research proposal. It identifies the state-of-the-art knowledge in a particular field, clarifies information that is already known, elucidates implications of the problem being analyzed, links theory and practice ( 3 - 5 ), highlights gaps in the current literature, and places the dissertation/thesis within the research agenda of that field. Additionally, by writing the LR, postgraduate students will comprehend the structure of the subject and elaborate on their cognitive connections ( 3 ) while analyzing and synthesizing data with increasing maturity.

At the same time, the LR transforms the student and hints at the contents of other chapters for the reader. First, the LR explains the research question; second, it supports the hypothesis, objectives, and methods of the research project; and finally, it facilitates a description of the student’s interpretation of the results and his/her conclusions. For scholars, the LR is an introductory chapter ( 6 ). If it is well written, it demonstrates the student’s understanding of and maturity in a particular topic. A sound and sophisticated LR can indicate a robust dissertation/thesis.

A consensus on the best method to elaborate a dissertation/thesis has not been achieved. The LR can be a distinct chapter or included in different sections; it can be part of the introduction chapter, part of each research topic, or part of each published paper ( 7 ). However, scholars view the LR as an integral part of the main body of an academic work because it is intrinsically connected to other sections ( Figure 1 ) and is frequently present. The structure of the LR depends on the conventions of a particular discipline, the rules of the department, and the student’s and supervisor’s areas of expertise, needs and interests.

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Object name is cln-74-e1403-g001.jpg

Interestingly, many postgraduate students choose to submit their LR to peer-reviewed journals. As LRs are critical evaluations of current knowledge, they are indeed publishable material, even in the form of narrative or systematic reviews. However, systematic reviews have specific patterns 1 ( 8 ) that may not entirely fit with the questions posed in the dissertation/thesis. Additionally, the scope of a systematic review may be too narrow, and the strict criteria for study inclusion may omit important information from the dissertation/thesis. Therefore, this essay discusses the definition of an LR is and methods to develop an LR in the context of an academic dissertation/thesis. Finally, we suggest a checklist to evaluate an LR.

WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW IN A THESIS?

Conducting research and writing a dissertation/thesis translates rational thinking and enthusiasm ( 9 ). While a strong body of literature that instructs students on research methodology, data analysis and writing scientific papers exists, little guidance on performing LRs is available. The LR is a unique opportunity to assess and contrast various arguments and theories, not just summarize them. The research results should not be discussed within the LR, but the postgraduate student tends to write a comprehensive LR while reflecting on his or her own findings ( 10 ).

Many people believe that writing an LR is a lonely and linear process. Supervisors or the institutions assume that the Ph.D. student has mastered the relevant techniques and vocabulary associated with his/her subject and conducts a self-reflection about previously published findings. Indeed, while elaborating the LR, the student should aggregate diverse skills, which mainly rely on his/her own commitment to mastering them. Thus, less supervision should be required ( 11 ). However, the parameters described above might not currently be the case for many students ( 11 , 12 ), and the lack of formal and systematic training on writing LRs is an important concern ( 11 ).

An institutional environment devoted to active learning will provide students the opportunity to continuously reflect on LRs, which will form a dialogue between the postgraduate student and the current literature in a particular field ( 13 ). Postgraduate students will be interpreting studies by other researchers, and, according to Hart (1998) ( 3 ), the outcomes of the LR in a dissertation/thesis include the following:

  • To identify what research has been performed and what topics require further investigation in a particular field of knowledge;
  • To determine the context of the problem;
  • To recognize the main methodologies and techniques that have been used in the past;
  • To place the current research project within the historical, methodological and theoretical context of a particular field;
  • To identify significant aspects of the topic;
  • To elucidate the implications of the topic;
  • To offer an alternative perspective;
  • To discern how the studied subject is structured;
  • To improve the student’s subject vocabulary in a particular field; and
  • To characterize the links between theory and practice.

A sound LR translates the postgraduate student’s expertise in academic and scientific writing: it expresses his/her level of comfort with synthesizing ideas ( 11 ). The LR reveals how well the postgraduate student has proceeded in three domains: an effective literature search, the language domain, and critical writing.

Effective literature search

All students should be trained in gathering appropriate data for specific purposes, and information literacy skills are a cornerstone. These skills are defined as “an individual’s ability to know when they need information, to identify information that can help them address the issue or problem at hand, and to locate, evaluate, and use that information effectively” ( 14 ). Librarian support is of vital importance in coaching the appropriate use of Boolean logic (AND, OR, NOT) and other tools for highly efficient literature searches (e.g., quotation marks and truncation), as is the appropriate management of electronic databases.

Language domain

Academic writing must be concise and precise: unnecessary words distract the reader from the essential content ( 15 ). In this context, reading about issues distant from the research topic ( 16 ) may increase students’ general vocabulary and familiarity with grammar. Ultimately, reading diverse materials facilitates and encourages the writing process itself.

Critical writing

Critical judgment includes critical reading, thinking and writing. It supposes a student’s analytical reflection about what he/she has read. The student should delineate the basic elements of the topic, characterize the most relevant claims, identify relationships, and finally contrast those relationships ( 17 ). Each scientific document highlights the perspective of the author, and students will become more confident in judging the supporting evidence and underlying premises of a study and constructing their own counterargument as they read more articles. A paucity of integration or contradictory perspectives indicates lower levels of cognitive complexity ( 12 ).

Thus, while elaborating an LR, the postgraduate student should achieve the highest category of Bloom’s cognitive skills: evaluation ( 12 ). The writer should not only summarize data and understand each topic but also be able to make judgments based on objective criteria, compare resources and findings, identify discrepancies due to methodology, and construct his/her own argument ( 12 ). As a result, the student will be sufficiently confident to show his/her own voice .

Writing a consistent LR is an intense and complex activity that reveals the training and long-lasting academic skills of a writer. It is not a lonely or linear process. However, students are unlikely to be prepared to write an LR if they have not mastered the aforementioned domains ( 10 ). An institutional environment that supports student learning is crucial.

Different institutions employ distinct methods to promote students’ learning processes. First, many universities propose modules to develop behind the scenes activities that enhance self-reflection about general skills (e.g., the skills we have mastered and the skills we need to develop further), behaviors that should be incorporated (e.g., self-criticism about one’s own thoughts), and each student’s role in the advancement of his/her field. Lectures or workshops about LRs themselves are useful because they describe the purposes of the LR and how it fits into the whole picture of a student’s work. These activities may explain what type of discussion an LR must involve, the importance of defining the correct scope, the reasons to include a particular resource, and the main role of critical reading.

Some pedagogic services that promote a continuous improvement in study and academic skills are equally important. Examples include workshops about time management, the accomplishment of personal objectives, active learning, and foreign languages for nonnative speakers. Additionally, opportunities to converse with other students promotes an awareness of others’ experiences and difficulties. Ultimately, the supervisor’s role in providing feedback and setting deadlines is crucial in developing students’ abilities and in strengthening students’ writing quality ( 12 ).

HOW SHOULD A LITERATURE REVIEW BE DEVELOPED?

A consensus on the appropriate method for elaborating an LR is not available, but four main steps are generally accepted: defining the main topic, searching the literature, analyzing the results, and writing ( 6 ). We suggest a fifth step: reflecting on the information that has been written in previous publications ( Figure 2 ).

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First step: Defining the main topic

Planning an LR is directly linked to the research main question of the thesis and occurs in parallel to students’ training in the three domains discussed above. The planning stage helps organize ideas, delimit the scope of the LR ( 11 ), and avoid the wasting of time in the process. Planning includes the following steps:

  • Reflecting on the scope of the LR: postgraduate students will have assumptions about what material must be addressed and what information is not essential to an LR ( 13 , 18 ). Cooper’s Taxonomy of Literature Reviews 2 systematizes the writing process through six characteristics and nonmutually exclusive categories. The focus refers to the reviewer’s most important points of interest, while the goals concern what students want to achieve with the LR. The perspective assumes answers to the student’s own view of the LR and how he/she presents a particular issue. The coverage defines how comprehensive the student is in presenting the literature, and the organization determines the sequence of arguments. The audience is defined as the group for whom the LR is written.
  • Designating sections and subsections: Headings and subheadings should be specific, explanatory and have a coherent sequence throughout the text ( 4 ). They simulate an inverted pyramid, with an increasing level of reflection and depth of argument.
  • Identifying keywords: The relevant keywords for each LR section should be listed to guide the literature search. This list should mirror what Hart (1998) ( 3 ) advocates as subject vocabulary . The keywords will also be useful when the student is writing the LR since they guide the reader through the text.
  • Delineating the time interval and language of documents to be retrieved in the second step. The most recently published documents should be considered, but relevant texts published before a predefined cutoff year can be included if they are classic documents in that field. Extra care should be employed when translating documents.

Second step: Searching the literature

The ability to gather adequate information from the literature must be addressed in postgraduate programs. Librarian support is important, particularly for accessing difficult texts. This step comprises the following components:

  • Searching the literature itself: This process consists of defining which databases (electronic or dissertation/thesis repositories), official documents, and books will be searched and then actively conducting the search. Information literacy skills have a central role in this stage. While searching electronic databases, controlled vocabulary (e.g., Medical Subject Headings, or MeSH, for the PubMed database) or specific standardized syntax rules may need to be applied.

In addition, two other approaches are suggested. First, a review of the reference list of each document might be useful for identifying relevant publications to be included and important opinions to be assessed. This step is also relevant for referencing the original studies and leading authors in that field. Moreover, students can directly contact the experts on a particular topic to consult with them regarding their experience or use them as a source of additional unpublished documents.

Before submitting a dissertation/thesis, the electronic search strategy should be repeated. This process will ensure that the most recently published papers will be considered in the LR.

  • Selecting documents for inclusion: Generally, the most recent literature will be included in the form of published peer-reviewed papers. Assess books and unpublished material, such as conference abstracts, academic texts and government reports, are also important to assess since the gray literature also offers valuable information. However, since these materials are not peer-reviewed, we recommend that they are carefully added to the LR.

This task is an important exercise in time management. First, students should read the title and abstract to understand whether that document suits their purposes, addresses the research question, and helps develop the topic of interest. Then, they should scan the full text, determine how it is structured, group it with similar documents, and verify whether other arguments might be considered ( 5 ).

Third step: Analyzing the results

Critical reading and thinking skills are important in this step. This step consists of the following components:

  • Reading documents: The student may read various texts in depth according to LR sections and subsections ( defining the main topic ), which is not a passive activity ( 1 ). Some questions should be asked to practice critical analysis skills, as listed below. Is the research question evident and articulated with previous knowledge? What are the authors’ research goals and theoretical orientations, and how do they interact? Are the authors’ claims related to other scholars’ research? Do the authors consider different perspectives? Was the research project designed and conducted properly? Are the results and discussion plausible, and are they consistent with the research objectives and methodology? What are the strengths and limitations of this work? How do the authors support their findings? How does this work contribute to the current research topic? ( 1 , 19 )
  • Taking notes: Students who systematically take notes on each document are more readily able to establish similarities or differences with other documents and to highlight personal observations. This approach reinforces the student’s ideas about the next step and helps develop his/her own academic voice ( 1 , 13 ). Voice recognition software ( 16 ), mind maps ( 5 ), flowcharts, tables, spreadsheets, personal comments on the referenced texts, and note-taking apps are all available tools for managing these observations, and the student him/herself should use the tool that best improves his/her learning. Additionally, when a student is considering submitting an LR to a peer-reviewed journal, notes should be taken on the activities performed in all five steps to ensure that they are able to be replicated.

Fourth step: Writing

The recognition of when a student is able and ready to write after a sufficient period of reading and thinking is likely a difficult task. Some students can produce a review in a single long work session. However, as discussed above, writing is not a linear process, and students do not need to write LRs according to a specific sequence of sections. Writing an LR is a time-consuming task, and some scholars believe that a period of at least six months is sufficient ( 6 ). An LR, and academic writing in general, expresses the writer’s proper thoughts, conclusions about others’ work ( 6 , 10 , 13 , 16 ), and decisions about methods to progress in the chosen field of knowledge. Thus, each student is expected to present a different learning and writing trajectory.

In this step, writing methods should be considered; then, editing, citing and correct referencing should complete this stage, at least temporarily. Freewriting techniques may be a good starting point for brainstorming ideas and improving the understanding of the information that has been read ( 1 ). Students should consider the following parameters when creating an agenda for writing the LR: two-hour writing blocks (at minimum), with prespecified tasks that are possible to complete in one section; short (minutes) and long breaks (days or weeks) to allow sufficient time for mental rest and reflection; and short- and long-term goals to motivate the writing itself ( 20 ). With increasing experience, this scheme can vary widely, and it is not a straightforward rule. Importantly, each discipline has a different way of writing ( 1 ), and each department has its own preferred styles for citations and references.

Fifth step: Reflecting on the writing

In this step, the postgraduate student should ask him/herself the same questions as in the analyzing the results step, which can take more time than anticipated. Ambiguities, repeated ideas, and a lack of coherence may not be noted when the student is immersed in the writing task for long periods. The whole effort will likely be a work in progress, and continuous refinements in the written material will occur once the writing process has begun.

LITERATURE REVIEW CHECKLIST

In contrast to review papers, the LR of a dissertation/thesis should not be a standalone piece or work. Instead, it should present the student as a scholar and should maintain the interest of the audience in how that dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field.

A checklist for evaluating an LR is convenient for students’ continuous academic development and research transparency: it clearly states the desired achievements for the LR of a dissertation/thesis. Here, we present an LR checklist developed from an LR scoring rubric ( 11 ). For a critical analysis of an LR, we maintain the five categories but offer twelve criteria that are not scaled ( Figure 3 ). The criteria all have the same importance and are not mutually exclusive.

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First category: Coverage

1. justified criteria exist for the inclusion and exclusion of literature in the review.

This criterion builds on the main topic and areas covered by the LR ( 18 ). While experts may be confident in retrieving and selecting literature, postgraduate students must convince their audience about the adequacy of their search strategy and their reasons for intentionally selecting what material to cover ( 11 ). References from different fields of knowledge provide distinct perspective, but narrowing the scope of coverage may be important in areas with a large body of existing knowledge.

Second category: Synthesis

2. a critical examination of the state of the field exists.

A critical examination is an assessment of distinct aspects in the field ( 1 ) along with a constructive argument. It is not a negative critique but an expression of the student’s understanding of how other scholars have added to the topic ( 1 ), and the student should analyze and contextualize contradictory statements. A writer’s personal bias (beliefs or political involvement) have been shown to influence the structure and writing of a document; therefore, the cultural and paradigmatic background guide how the theories are revised and presented ( 13 ). However, an honest judgment is important when considering different perspectives.

3. The topic or problem is clearly placed in the context of the broader scholarly literature

The broader scholarly literature should be related to the chosen main topic for the LR ( how to develop the literature review section). The LR can cover the literature from one or more disciplines, depending on its scope, but it should always offer a new perspective. In addition, students should be careful in citing and referencing previous publications. As a rule, original studies and primary references should generally be included. Systematic and narrative reviews present summarized data, and it may be important to cite them, particularly for issues that should be understood but do not require a detailed description. Similarly, quotations highlight the exact statement from another publication. However, excessive referencing may disclose lower levels of analysis and synthesis by the student.

4. The LR is critically placed in the historical context of the field

Situating the LR in its historical context shows the level of comfort of the student in addressing a particular topic. Instead of only presenting statements and theories in a temporal approach, which occasionally follows a linear timeline, the LR should authentically characterize the student’s academic work in the state-of-art techniques in their particular field of knowledge. Thus, the LR should reinforce why the dissertation/thesis represents original work in the chosen research field.

5. Ambiguities in definitions are considered and resolved

Distinct theories on the same topic may exist in different disciplines, and one discipline may consider multiple concepts to explain one topic. These misunderstandings should be addressed and contemplated. The LR should not synthesize all theories or concepts at the same time. Although this approach might demonstrate in-depth reading on a particular topic, it can reveal a student’s inability to comprehend and synthesize his/her research problem.

6. Important variables and phenomena relevant to the topic are articulated

The LR is a unique opportunity to articulate ideas and arguments and to purpose new relationships between them ( 10 , 11 ). More importantly, a sound LR will outline to the audience how these important variables and phenomena will be addressed in the current academic work. Indeed, the LR should build a bidirectional link with the remaining sections and ground the connections between all of the sections ( Figure 1 ).

7. A synthesized new perspective on the literature has been established

The LR is a ‘creative inquiry’ ( 13 ) in which the student elaborates his/her own discourse, builds on previous knowledge in the field, and describes his/her own perspective while interpreting others’ work ( 13 , 17 ). Thus, students should articulate the current knowledge, not accept the results at face value ( 11 , 13 , 17 ), and improve their own cognitive abilities ( 12 ).

Third category: Methodology

8. the main methodologies and research techniques that have been used in the field are identified and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed.

The LR is expected to distinguish the research that has been completed from investigations that remain to be performed, address the benefits and limitations of the main methods applied to date, and consider the strategies for addressing the expected limitations described above. While placing his/her research within the methodological context of a particular topic, the LR will justify the methodology of the study and substantiate the student’s interpretations.

9. Ideas and theories in the field are related to research methodologies

The audience expects the writer to analyze and synthesize methodological approaches in the field. The findings should be explained according to the strengths and limitations of previous research methods, and students must avoid interpretations that are not supported by the analyzed literature. This criterion translates to the student’s comprehension of the applicability and types of answers provided by different research methodologies, even those using a quantitative or qualitative research approach.

Fourth category: Significance

10. the scholarly significance of the research problem is rationalized.

The LR is an introductory section of a dissertation/thesis and will present the postgraduate student as a scholar in a particular field ( 11 ). Therefore, the LR should discuss how the research problem is currently addressed in the discipline being investigated or in different disciplines, depending on the scope of the LR. The LR explains the academic paradigms in the topic of interest ( 13 ) and methods to advance the field from these starting points. However, an excess number of personal citations—whether referencing the student’s research or studies by his/her research team—may reflect a narrow literature search and a lack of comprehensive synthesis of ideas and arguments.

11. The practical significance of the research problem is rationalized

The practical significance indicates a student’s comprehensive understanding of research terminology (e.g., risk versus associated factor), methodology (e.g., efficacy versus effectiveness) and plausible interpretations in the context of the field. Notably, the academic argument about a topic may not always reflect the debate in real life terms. For example, using a quantitative approach in epidemiology, statistically significant differences between groups do not explain all of the factors involved in a particular problem ( 21 ). Therefore, excessive faith in p -values may reflect lower levels of critical evaluation of the context and implications of a research problem by the student.

Fifth category: Rhetoric

12. the lr was written with a coherent, clear structure that supported the review.

This category strictly relates to the language domain: the text should be coherent and presented in a logical sequence, regardless of which organizational ( 18 ) approach is chosen. The beginning of each section/subsection should state what themes will be addressed, paragraphs should be carefully linked to each other ( 10 ), and the first sentence of each paragraph should generally summarize the content. Additionally, the student’s statements are clear, sound, and linked to other scholars’ works, and precise and concise language that follows standardized writing conventions (e.g., in terms of active/passive voice and verb tenses) is used. Attention to grammar, such as orthography and punctuation, indicates prudence and supports a robust dissertation/thesis. Ultimately, all of these strategies provide fluency and consistency for the text.

Although the scoring rubric was initially proposed for postgraduate programs in education research, we are convinced that this checklist is a valuable tool for all academic areas. It enables the monitoring of students’ learning curves and a concentrated effort on any criteria that are not yet achieved. For institutions, the checklist is a guide to support supervisors’ feedback, improve students’ writing skills, and highlight the learning goals of each program. These criteria do not form a linear sequence, but ideally, all twelve achievements should be perceived in the LR.

CONCLUSIONS

A single correct method to classify, evaluate and guide the elaboration of an LR has not been established. In this essay, we have suggested directions for planning, structuring and critically evaluating an LR. The planning of the scope of an LR and approaches to complete it is a valuable effort, and the five steps represent a rational starting point. An institutional environment devoted to active learning will support students in continuously reflecting on LRs, which will form a dialogue between the writer and the current literature in a particular field ( 13 ).

The completion of an LR is a challenging and necessary process for understanding one’s own field of expertise. Knowledge is always transitory, but our responsibility as scholars is to provide a critical contribution to our field, allowing others to think through our work. Good researchers are grounded in sophisticated LRs, which reveal a writer’s training and long-lasting academic skills. We recommend using the LR checklist as a tool for strengthening the skills necessary for critical academic writing.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Leite DFB has initially conceived the idea and has written the first draft of this review. Padilha MAS and Cecatti JG have supervised data interpretation and critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read the draft and agreed with this submission. Authors are responsible for all aspects of this academic piece.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are grateful to all of the professors of the ‘Getting Started with Graduate Research and Generic Skills’ module at University College Cork, Cork, Ireland, for suggesting and supporting this article. Funding: DFBL has granted scholarship from Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES) to take part of her Ph.D. studies in Ireland (process number 88881.134512/2016-01). There is no participation from sponsors on authors’ decision to write or to submit this manuscript.

No potential conflict of interest was reported.

1 The questions posed in systematic reviews usually follow the ‘PICOS’ acronym: Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, Study design.

2 In 1988, Cooper proposed a taxonomy that aims to facilitate students’ and institutions’ understanding of literature reviews. Six characteristics with specific categories are briefly described: Focus: research outcomes, research methodologies, theories, or practices and applications; Goals: integration (generalization, conflict resolution, and linguistic bridge-building), criticism, or identification of central issues; Perspective: neutral representation or espousal of a position; Coverage: exhaustive, exhaustive with selective citations, representative, central or pivotal; Organization: historical, conceptual, or methodological; and Audience: specialized scholars, general scholars, practitioners or policymakers, or the general public.

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Home » Critical Analysis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Critical Analysis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis

Definition:

Critical analysis is a process of examining a piece of work or an idea in a systematic, objective, and analytical way. It involves breaking down complex ideas, concepts, or arguments into smaller, more manageable parts to understand them better.

Types of Critical Analysis

Types of Critical Analysis are as follows:

Literary Analysis

This type of analysis focuses on analyzing and interpreting works of literature , such as novels, poetry, plays, etc. The analysis involves examining the literary devices used in the work, such as symbolism, imagery, and metaphor, and how they contribute to the overall meaning of the work.

Film Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting films, including their themes, cinematography, editing, and sound. Film analysis can also include evaluating the director’s style and how it contributes to the overall message of the film.

Art Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting works of art , such as paintings, sculptures, and installations. The analysis involves examining the elements of the artwork, such as color, composition, and technique, and how they contribute to the overall meaning of the work.

Cultural Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting cultural artifacts , such as advertisements, popular music, and social media posts. The analysis involves examining the cultural context of the artifact and how it reflects and shapes cultural values, beliefs, and norms.

Historical Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting historical documents , such as diaries, letters, and government records. The analysis involves examining the historical context of the document and how it reflects the social, political, and cultural attitudes of the time.

Philosophical Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting philosophical texts and ideas, such as the works of philosophers and their arguments. The analysis involves evaluating the logical consistency of the arguments and assessing the validity and soundness of the conclusions.

Scientific Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting scientific research studies and their findings. The analysis involves evaluating the methods used in the study, the data collected, and the conclusions drawn, and assessing their reliability and validity.

Critical Discourse Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting language use in social and political contexts. The analysis involves evaluating the power dynamics and social relationships conveyed through language use and how they shape discourse and social reality.

Comparative Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting multiple texts or works of art and comparing them to each other. The analysis involves evaluating the similarities and differences between the texts and how they contribute to understanding the themes and meanings conveyed.

Critical Analysis Format

Critical Analysis Format is as follows:

I. Introduction

  • Provide a brief overview of the text, object, or event being analyzed
  • Explain the purpose of the analysis and its significance
  • Provide background information on the context and relevant historical or cultural factors

II. Description

  • Provide a detailed description of the text, object, or event being analyzed
  • Identify key themes, ideas, and arguments presented
  • Describe the author or creator’s style, tone, and use of language or visual elements

III. Analysis

  • Analyze the text, object, or event using critical thinking skills
  • Identify the main strengths and weaknesses of the argument or presentation
  • Evaluate the reliability and validity of the evidence presented
  • Assess any assumptions or biases that may be present in the text, object, or event
  • Consider the implications of the argument or presentation for different audiences and contexts

IV. Evaluation

  • Provide an overall evaluation of the text, object, or event based on the analysis
  • Assess the effectiveness of the argument or presentation in achieving its intended purpose
  • Identify any limitations or gaps in the argument or presentation
  • Consider any alternative viewpoints or interpretations that could be presented
  • Summarize the main points of the analysis and evaluation
  • Reiterate the significance of the text, object, or event and its relevance to broader issues or debates
  • Provide any recommendations for further research or future developments in the field.

VI. Example

  • Provide an example or two to support your analysis and evaluation
  • Use quotes or specific details from the text, object, or event to support your claims
  • Analyze the example(s) using critical thinking skills and explain how they relate to your overall argument

VII. Conclusion

  • Reiterate your thesis statement and summarize your main points
  • Provide a final evaluation of the text, object, or event based on your analysis
  • Offer recommendations for future research or further developments in the field
  • End with a thought-provoking statement or question that encourages the reader to think more deeply about the topic

How to Write Critical Analysis

Writing a critical analysis involves evaluating and interpreting a text, such as a book, article, or film, and expressing your opinion about its quality and significance. Here are some steps you can follow to write a critical analysis:

  • Read and re-read the text: Before you begin writing, make sure you have a good understanding of the text. Read it several times and take notes on the key points, themes, and arguments.
  • Identify the author’s purpose and audience: Consider why the author wrote the text and who the intended audience is. This can help you evaluate whether the author achieved their goals and whether the text is effective in reaching its audience.
  • Analyze the structure and style: Look at the organization of the text and the author’s writing style. Consider how these elements contribute to the overall meaning of the text.
  • Evaluate the content : Analyze the author’s arguments, evidence, and conclusions. Consider whether they are logical, convincing, and supported by the evidence presented in the text.
  • Consider the context: Think about the historical, cultural, and social context in which the text was written. This can help you understand the author’s perspective and the significance of the text.
  • Develop your thesis statement : Based on your analysis, develop a clear and concise thesis statement that summarizes your overall evaluation of the text.
  • Support your thesis: Use evidence from the text to support your thesis statement. This can include direct quotes, paraphrases, and examples from the text.
  • Write the introduction, body, and conclusion : Organize your analysis into an introduction that provides context and presents your thesis, a body that presents your evidence and analysis, and a conclusion that summarizes your main points and restates your thesis.
  • Revise and edit: After you have written your analysis, revise and edit it to ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and well-organized. Check for spelling and grammar errors, and make sure that your analysis is logically sound and supported by evidence.

When to Write Critical Analysis

You may want to write a critical analysis in the following situations:

  • Academic Assignments: If you are a student, you may be assigned to write a critical analysis as a part of your coursework. This could include analyzing a piece of literature, a historical event, or a scientific paper.
  • Journalism and Media: As a journalist or media person, you may need to write a critical analysis of current events, political speeches, or media coverage.
  • Personal Interest: If you are interested in a particular topic, you may want to write a critical analysis to gain a deeper understanding of it. For example, you may want to analyze the themes and motifs in a novel or film that you enjoyed.
  • Professional Development : Professionals such as writers, scholars, and researchers often write critical analyses to gain insights into their field of study or work.

Critical Analysis Example

An Example of Critical Analysis Could be as follow:

Research Topic:

The Impact of Online Learning on Student Performance

Introduction:

The introduction of the research topic is clear and provides an overview of the issue. However, it could benefit from providing more background information on the prevalence of online learning and its potential impact on student performance.

Literature Review:

The literature review is comprehensive and well-structured. It covers a broad range of studies that have examined the relationship between online learning and student performance. However, it could benefit from including more recent studies and providing a more critical analysis of the existing literature.

Research Methods:

The research methods are clearly described and appropriate for the research question. The study uses a quasi-experimental design to compare the performance of students who took an online course with those who took the same course in a traditional classroom setting. However, the study may benefit from using a randomized controlled trial design to reduce potential confounding factors.

The results are presented in a clear and concise manner. The study finds that students who took the online course performed similarly to those who took the traditional course. However, the study only measures performance on one course and may not be generalizable to other courses or contexts.

Discussion :

The discussion section provides a thorough analysis of the study’s findings. The authors acknowledge the limitations of the study and provide suggestions for future research. However, they could benefit from discussing potential mechanisms underlying the relationship between online learning and student performance.

Conclusion :

The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the study and provides some implications for future research and practice. However, it could benefit from providing more specific recommendations for implementing online learning programs in educational settings.

Purpose of Critical Analysis

There are several purposes of critical analysis, including:

  • To identify and evaluate arguments : Critical analysis helps to identify the main arguments in a piece of writing or speech and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. This enables the reader to form their own opinion and make informed decisions.
  • To assess evidence : Critical analysis involves examining the evidence presented in a text or speech and evaluating its quality and relevance to the argument. This helps to determine the credibility of the claims being made.
  • To recognize biases and assumptions : Critical analysis helps to identify any biases or assumptions that may be present in the argument, and evaluate how these affect the credibility of the argument.
  • To develop critical thinking skills: Critical analysis helps to develop the ability to think critically, evaluate information objectively, and make reasoned judgments based on evidence.
  • To improve communication skills: Critical analysis involves carefully reading and listening to information, evaluating it, and expressing one’s own opinion in a clear and concise manner. This helps to improve communication skills and the ability to express ideas effectively.

Importance of Critical Analysis

Here are some specific reasons why critical analysis is important:

  • Helps to identify biases: Critical analysis helps individuals to recognize their own biases and assumptions, as well as the biases of others. By being aware of biases, individuals can better evaluate the credibility and reliability of information.
  • Enhances problem-solving skills : Critical analysis encourages individuals to question assumptions and consider multiple perspectives, which can lead to creative problem-solving and innovation.
  • Promotes better decision-making: By carefully evaluating evidence and arguments, critical analysis can help individuals make more informed and effective decisions.
  • Facilitates understanding: Critical analysis helps individuals to understand complex issues and ideas by breaking them down into smaller parts and evaluating them separately.
  • Fosters intellectual growth : Engaging in critical analysis challenges individuals to think deeply and critically, which can lead to intellectual growth and development.

Advantages of Critical Analysis

Some advantages of critical analysis include:

  • Improved decision-making: Critical analysis helps individuals make informed decisions by evaluating all available information and considering various perspectives.
  • Enhanced problem-solving skills : Critical analysis requires individuals to identify and analyze the root cause of a problem, which can help develop effective solutions.
  • Increased creativity : Critical analysis encourages individuals to think outside the box and consider alternative solutions to problems, which can lead to more creative and innovative ideas.
  • Improved communication : Critical analysis helps individuals communicate their ideas and opinions more effectively by providing logical and coherent arguments.
  • Reduced bias: Critical analysis requires individuals to evaluate information objectively, which can help reduce personal biases and subjective opinions.
  • Better understanding of complex issues : Critical analysis helps individuals to understand complex issues by breaking them down into smaller parts, examining each part and understanding how they fit together.
  • Greater self-awareness: Critical analysis helps individuals to recognize their own biases, assumptions, and limitations, which can lead to personal growth and development.

About the author

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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  • Charlesworth Author Services
  • 08 October, 2021

As you read research papers, you may notice that there are two very different kinds of review of prior studies. Sometimes, this section of a paper is called a literature review, and at other times, it is referred to as a critical review or a critical context . These differences may be more commonly seen across different fields. Although both these sections are about reviewing prior and existing studies, this article aims to clarify the differences between the two.

Literature review

A literature review is a summary of prior or existing studies that are related to your own research paper . A literature review can be a part of a research paper or can form a paper in itself . For the former, the literature review is designed as a basis upon which your own current study is designed and built. The latter forms a synthesis of prior studies and is a way to highlight future research agendas or a framework.

Writing a literature review

In a literature review, you should attempt to discuss the arguments and findings in prior studies and then work to build on these studies as you develop your own research. You can also highlight the connection between existing and prior literature to demonstrate how the current study you are presenting can advance your knowledge in the field .

When performing a literature review, you should aim to summarise your discussions using a specific aspect of the literature, such as by topic, time, methodology/ design and findings . By doing so, you should be able to establish an effective way to present the relevant literature and demonstrate the connection between prior studies and your research.

Do note that a literature review does not include a presentation or discussion of any results or findings – this should come at a later point in the paper or study. You should also not impose your subjective viewpoints or opinions on the literature you discuss. 

Critical review

A critical review is also a popular way of reviewing prior and existing studies. It can cover and discuss the main ideas or arguments in a book or an article, or it can review a specific concept, theme, theoretical perspective or key construct found in the existing literature .

However, the key feature that distinguishes a critical review from a literature review is that the former is more than just a summary of different topics or methodologies. It offers more of a reflection and critique of the concept in question, and is engaged by authors to more clearly contextualise their own research within the existing literature and to present their opinions, perspectives and approaches .

Given that a critical review is not just a summary of prior literature, it is generally not considered acceptable to follow the same strategy as for a literature review. Instead, aim to organise and structure your critical review in a way that would enable you to discuss the key concepts, assert your perspectives and locate your arguments and research within the existing body of work. 

Structuring a critical review

A critical review would generally begin with an introduction to the concepts you would like to discuss. Depending on how broad the topics are, this can simply be a brief overview or it could set up a more complex framework. The discussion that follows through the rest of the review will then address and discuss your chosen themes or topics in more depth. 

Writing a critical review

The discussion within a critical review will not only present and summarise themes but also critically engage with the varying arguments, writings and perspectives within those themes. One important thing to note is that, similar to a literature review , you should keep your personal opinions, likes and dislikes out of a review. Whether you personally agree with a study or argument – and whether you like it or not – is immaterial. Instead, you should focus upon the effectiveness and relevance of the arguments , considering such elements as the evidence provided, the interpretations and analysis of the data, whether or not a study may be biased in any way, what further questions or problems it raises or what outstanding gaps and issues need to be addressed.

In conclusion

Although a review of previous and existing literature can be performed and presented in different ways, in essence, any literature or critical review requires a solid understanding of the most prominent work in the field as it relates to your own study. Such an understanding is crucial and significant for you to build upon and synthesise the existing knowledge, and to create and contribute new knowledge to advance the field .

Read previous (fourth) in series: How to refer to other studies or literature in the different sections of a research paper

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  • University of Texas Libraries

Literature Reviews

  • What is a literature review?
  • Steps in the Literature Review Process
  • Define your research question
  • Determine inclusion and exclusion criteria
  • Choose databases and search
  • Review Results
  • Synthesize Results
  • Analyze Results
  • Librarian Support

What is a Literature Review?

A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important past and current research and practices. It provides background and context, and shows how your research will contribute to the field. 

A literature review should: 

  • Provide a comprehensive and updated review of the literature;
  • Explain why this review has taken place;
  • Articulate a position or hypothesis;
  • Acknowledge and account for conflicting and corroborating points of view

From  S age Research Methods

Purpose of a Literature Review

A literature review can be written as an introduction to a study to:

  • Demonstrate how a study fills a gap in research
  • Compare a study with other research that's been done

Or it can be a separate work (a research article on its own) which:

  • Organizes or describes a topic
  • Describes variables within a particular issue/problem

Limitations of a Literature Review

Some of the limitations of a literature review are:

  • It's a snapshot in time. Unlike other reviews, this one has beginning, a middle and an end. There may be future developments that could make your work less relevant.
  • It may be too focused. Some niche studies may miss the bigger picture.
  • It can be difficult to be comprehensive. There is no way to make sure all the literature on a topic was considered.
  • It is easy to be biased if you stick to top tier journals. There may be other places where people are publishing exemplary research. Look to open access publications and conferences to reflect a more inclusive collection. Also, make sure to include opposing views (and not just supporting evidence).

Source: Grant, Maria J., and Andrew Booth. “A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types and Associated Methodologies.” Health Information & Libraries Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, June 2009, pp. 91–108. Wiley Online Library, doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x.

Meryl Brodsky : Communication and Information Studies

Hannah Chapman Tripp : Biology, Neuroscience

Carolyn Cunningham : Human Development & Family Sciences, Psychology, Sociology

Larayne Dallas : Engineering

Janelle Hedstrom : Special Education, Curriculum & Instruction, Ed Leadership & Policy ​

Susan Macicak : Linguistics

Imelda Vetter : Dell Medical School

For help in other subject areas, please see the guide to library specialists by subject .

Periodically, UT Libraries runs a workshop covering the basics and library support for literature reviews. While we try to offer these once per academic year, we find providing the recording to be helpful to community members who have missed the session. Following is the most recent recording of the workshop, Conducting a Literature Review. To view the recording, a UT login is required.

  • October 26, 2022 recording
  • Last Updated: Oct 26, 2022 2:49 PM
  • URL: https://guides.lib.utexas.edu/literaturereviews

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The parasomnia defense in sleep-related homicide: A systematic review and a critical analysis of the medical literature

Affiliations.

  • 1 Neurocenter of Italian Switzerland, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, Ospedale Civico, Lugano, Switzerland; Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, Switzerland; University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland. Electronic address: [email protected].
  • 2 Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, Switzerland.
  • 3 Minnesota Regional Sleep Disorders Center, Departments of Psychiatry, Hennepin County Medical Center, And University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, United States. Electronic address: [email protected].
  • 4 Neurocenter of Italian Switzerland, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, Ospedale Civico, Lugano, Switzerland; Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, Switzerland; Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland.
  • PMID: 38364685
  • DOI: 10.1016/j.smrv.2024.101898

This review critically analyzes the forensic application of the Parasomnia Defense in homicidal incidents, drawing from medical literature on disorders of arousal (DOA) and rapid-eye-movement sleep behavior disorder (RBD). A systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane databases was conducted until October 16, 2022. We screened English-language articles in peer-reviewed journals discussing murders committed during sleep with a Parasomnia Defense. We followed PRISMA guidelines, extracting event details, diagnosis methods, factors influencing the acts, perpetrator behavior, timing, motives, concealment, mental experiences, victim demographics, and court verdicts. Three sleep experts evaluated each case. We selected ten homicides, four attempted homicides, and one homicide/attempted homicide that met inclusion/exclusion criteria. Most cases were suspected DOA as unanimously confirmed by experts. RBD cases were absent. Among aggressors, a minority reported dream-like experiences. Victims were primarily female family members killed in or near the bed by hands and/or with sharp objects. Objective sleep data and important crime scene details were often missing. Verdicts were ununiform. Homicides during DOA episodes, though rare, are documented, validating the Parasomnia Defense's use in forensics. RBD-related fatal aggression seems very uncommon. However, cases often lack diagnostic clarity. We propose updated guidelines to enhance future reporting and understanding of such incidents.

Keywords: Disorder of arousal; Forensics; Murder; Non-REM parasomnia; RBD; Sleep; Sleep walking; Violence.

Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Publication types

  • Open access
  • Published: 14 February 2024

Exploring challenges and perceptions in the learning environment: an online qualitative study of medical students

  • Mohammed Almansour 1 &
  • Fatmah Almoayad 2  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  147 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The teaching and learning environment (TLE) in medical schools is critical for shaping the outcomes and competencies of graduates. Research on TLE has highlighted its influence on student learning approaches and outcomes, yet gaps remain, particularly in qualitative insights, especially in Saudi Arabian contexts. This study aims to explore the students’ experiences and perceptions of the TLE in a new medical college.

This qualitative study consisted of a total of five focus group discussions (3consequtive sessions for male group and two for female group) conducted virtually using the Zoom videoconferencing application. All the discussion sessions took place during a lockdown because of the COVID-19 pandemic between December 2020 and February 2021. Each session lasted for 45–60 min. Each group was formed of 4–5 students from different academic levels in the Majmaah medical school, which was established 10 years ago and is located in a small city. After “ verbatim transcription” of the sessions was made, a framework thematic analysis of the data was performed using the NVivo software.

The study results revealed that various elements, such as educational content, faculty roles, and personal factors, collectively influenced the students’ educational experiences. The students valued educational relevance and autonomous decision-making. The multifunctional role of faculty as mentors, evaluators, and resource providers was considered essential in enhancing academic experiences. Additionally, there was an evident need to improve the physical learning environment and facilities to adapt to emerging educational needs. These results align with existing literature, emphasizing the integration of theory and practice and the significant impact of faculty roles in academic experiences.

The findings suggest that medical colleges should involve students more in decision-making related to their education and ensure the practical relevance of the educational content. Establishing open communication channels between students and faculty who act as mentors and evaluators is also essential. Furthermore, enhancing supportive infrastructures, such as mental health and financial services, and promoting extracurricular activities are crucial for fostering a more effective and nurturing learning environment.

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Introduction

Teaching and learning environment (TLE) in medical schools as attracted growing attention in the academic community, reflecting its central role in shaping the educational outcomes and professional competency of graduates [ 1 ]. Understanding the TLE in medical schools involves exploring several factors, such as administrative arrangements, curriculum design, assessment methods, student–teacher interaction, resources, facilities, and psychosocial elements [ 2 , 3 , 4 ].

Since the late 1970s, the study of the impact of the TLE on medical students has grown. Initially focusing on deep and surface learning approaches, the research has expanded. It now encompasses diverse learning strategies and styles, highlighting the influence of the TLE on student outcomes [ 5 ]. Ramsden and Entwistle [ 6 ] laid the groundwork for studying the relationship between approaches to learning which refers to the various ways in which students engage with their educational experiences and perceptions of the learning environment students’ views and opinions about the various aspects of their educational setting. In their study, they identified three main factors in approaches to studying: orientations toward personal meaning, reproducing, and achieving.

Despite advancements in TLE research, some contradictory evidence exists regarding the relationship between TLE characteristics and students’ learning approaches [ 7 ]. Additionally, there are indications of cultural differences in student learning approaches [ 8 ], which further the understanding of these dynamics.

Faculty play a crucial role in cultivating a positive TLE by encouraging peer collaboration, stimulating discussions, and fostering positive perceptions [ 9 ]. These aspects are vital for both learning and academic well-being, as indicated by major educational bodies [ 10 , 11 , 12 ].

A supportive TLE has been associated with the overall success of an educational program and the development of competent graduates, influencing aspects such as feelings, mood, and the prevention of burnout [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Several studies have demonstrated the significance of monitoring students’ perceptions as an effective method for evaluating and improving the TLE [ 12 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. For example, learning communities in medical schools have been linked with positive perceptions of the learning environment [ 20 ], while factors such as quality teaching, faculty support, and self-directed learning spaces are influential in shaping these perceptions [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. The ongoing evaluation and adaptation of TLEs in collaboration with teachers and students is crucial for improving medical education.

Student surveys have been widely used by institutions across the world as an evaluation tool to assess teaching quality and learning experiences [ 22 ]. In Saudi Arabia, multiple studies have employed the Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure (DREEM) to understand students’ perceptions of their educational environment. Recent regional studies have provided new insights into undergraduate medical students’ learning styles and perceptions [ 23 , 24 ]. However, these studies have also revealed varied perceptions in Saudi institutions. Some have reported positive changes after moving to new campuses. Others expressed concerns about teaching methods, student–teacher relations, and stress [ 25 , 26 , 27 ].

While global research offers a rich array of qualitative studies that intricately explore the TLE [ 7 , 28 , 29 ], there is a noticeable gap in the local literature, with Saudi Arabian studies predominantly relying on quantitative data. An emphasis on quantitative methodologies provides a broad overview but often lacks the in-depth insights that qualitative methods can bring, particularly in understanding the lived experiences of students [ 30 ].

Research conducted at the College of Medicine at Majmaah University has shed light on generally favorable perceptions of students toward the TLE. The study by Almansour, AlMehmadi [ 31 ] identified challenges in acquiring knowledge and developing subject-specific skills, particularly during the basic science years. Specific areas identified as needing improvement included organized studying, communicating knowledge, and effort management. Notably, differences in satisfaction levels between clinical and basic science students, as well as gender-specific perceptions, noted in the research.

Building on the insights provided by the prior mentioned study by Almansour AlMehmadi [ 31 ], the current study aimed to comprehensively explore the experience of students about teaching and learning environment at the College of Medicine at Majmaah University. By exploring into their lived experiences and perceptions, this research seeks to fill the gap in the local literature by providing qualitative data on the TLE. The insights gained will contribute to tailoring the learning environment more effectively to meet the diverse needs of the student population. This will ultimately contribute to the creation of an optimally supportive educational environment.

Study design and participants

This observational study involved medical students at the College of Medicine, Majmaah University, Al-Majmaah, Riyadh Region. A focus group discussion method was employed to deeply explore the impact of the teaching and learning environment on the student’s learning experiences.

Setting and curricular framework

Majmaah University is an evolving educational institution in the region. It was established in 2009. Its college of medicine has adopted an outcome-based hybrid curriculum. Students must complete a six-year medical school program before they enroll in a one-year mandatory internship to obtain their bachelor of medicine/bachelor of surgery (MBBS) degree. The first year (phase 1) in medical school is preparatory, during which the students study chemistry, physics, and the English language. The following two and a half years start (phase 2) with system-oriented basic medical science modules and are followed by two and a half years (phase 3) of clinical clerkship in which students rotate between a major and sub-specialties with a main focus on practical clinical sessions. During all phases, evaluation includes theoretical and practical exams held after each module. This is followed by a mandatory internship year (phase 4) comprised of clinical rotations in medicine, surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, and emergency medicine. in addition to two elective clinical rotations. The interns are evaluated by their direct supervisors at the end of each rotation on a pass/fail basis, and they are eligible for the Saudi Medical Licensing Exam (SMLE), which is held twice a year.

Sampling and recruitment

The participants were recruited for two focus group discussions during the last three months of the 2020/2021 academic year. The total combined number of male and female students in the college at the time of the study was 324. Each group comprised 4–5 participants who had previously participated in quantitative research conducted earlier in their college experience by the same researcher and his team. Both groups consisted of heterogenous type of participants from all academic levels as shown in Table  1 . Following the local cultural norms in Saudi Arabia, the male and female focus groups were kept separate during their participation. A student affairs employee was asked by the researcher to recruit five students from the previous participants to join the two focus group discussions.

Data collection

Data were collected between December 2020 and February 2021. General demographic information sheets were completed by the participants upon recruitment. The focus group discussions were led by the principal investigator. The researcher conducted the focus group discussions virtually through the Zoom videoconferencing application. The recording of all sessions was done through ZOOM videoconferencing features of recording. All focus group discussion sessions took place during a lockdown because of the COVID-19 pandemic, which mandated the use of technology to conduct the sessions. The main researcher, an observer from the research team (two sessions only), and the participants were the only individuals in the Zoom meeting. The discussions were audio-visually recorded and lasted between 45 and 60 min.

The participants were given the choice of speaking Arabic (the native language of all the participants) or English. The discussions were led by a topic guide that was developed based on the aims of the study, which was a deep exploration of our previous questionnaire-based study with the same population (See Additional file 1.) Flexibility was observed by following the structured topic guide to allow the emergence of new themes and in consideration of the interactive nature of the focus group.

The discussion started with a general question, “What is your experience of the teaching and learning as a medical student in the College of Medicine at Majmaah University?” This was followed by a discussion involving some of the learning environment issues identified in the previous study.

Data analysis

The focus group recordings were transcribed professionally by external individuals. To preserve the meaning, the transcripts were analyzed in their original language, and only quotes (as presented in this article) were translated into English. Two individuals (the main researcher and an independent research assistant) were involved in coding the data. The data analysis process was based on the thematic analysis approach [ 32 ], which involves a six-step process: (1) familiarizing yourself with the data, (2) generating initial codes, (3) searching for themes, (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining and naming themes, and (6) producing the report. Themes were developed based on the identified patterns of the codes. Coding was completed using emergent themes, which were investigated until saturation was achieved. The themes were derived from the collected data and the topic guide, which was partially developed from the previous study. The NVivo software version 11.4.2 was used for data analysis. Using the software increases the efficiency of data organization and retrieval. Familiarization, descriptive coding, basic analysis, and interpretation are the steps followed in data analysis and quotes from the discussions were used to support the themes.

Five focus group discussions were conducted during the course of the study. Three discussion sessions involved the male student group (same participants complete the three sessions), and two sessions were held with the female student group (same participants complete the two sessions). Five male students and four female students voluntarily participated in each group, and they all continued to the conclusion of the study. The participant demographic data are shown in Table  1 . This shows that they were well distributed in regard to educational level. Both the preclinical and clinical phases of the MBBS program were well represented.

The discussion sessions raised many issues about the learning environment in the local context of the college of medicine. The approach the groups used in handling the discussions was generally analytical problem-solving, and in some situations, it was more oriented toward generating recommendations, such as practical steps, to improve the learning environment. Three major themes emerged from the discussion sessions: (1) educational factors, (2) faculty-related factors, and (3) social and personal factors. Each theme contained a number of sub-themes (as shown in Table  2 ).

Educational factors

Decisions about the importance and relevance of their learning.

The students valued teaching methods that bridged the gap between theory and practice, which made their learning more relevant to real situations and practice. For example, the participants made the following comments:

‘Roleplaying is simulating the things that we studied theoretically, and this information won’t stick in our heads until we see it in reality… such as rare conditions, it is almost impossible, and we may never see some of them during practice, and that can be beneficial. Generally, I love simulating, and personally, I always make sure I participate in them.’ [P1M]. ‘The Case Discussions (CDs), which in general have helped me and made me think, especially in differential diagnosis. I wish it was in all the years, not just from the fifth year.’ [P1F].

They also emphasized their interest in deciding about their learning, such as which important topics are needed by the students to ensure their autonomy in the learning environment. This point was in the context of being able to make recommendations rather than changes in actual practice. For example, one participant (P4M) stated,

Not just the doctor can decide roleplay topics, the students themselves can choose as well.

Relevance of the curriculum structure to students’ learning

The feeling of being stressed by the compact courses and the required learning material in the curriculum was shared by many students. Although some students expressed views similar to P3F:

I really like the college’s plan…. It is an excellent point, and instead of studying the diseases all at once and getting me lost, it has been divided into two sections. Even though in the sixth year, there is huge pressure on me.

Some students thought that the distribution of courses, materials, and skills had a rationale behind it. However, some courses seemed less relevant to other students, as shown in the following examples:

‘In one module, I felt that it was not that important’ . [P4F] ‘Last year was the worst with the pressure of the modules and some doctors… sometimes, they don’t accept that we take modules for two weeks, and I have midterms every week. We face huge psychological pressure’ [P3F].

Role of self-reflection

Reflections on learning were expressed by some students. They often related it to their phase or level of clinical exposure. For example, the following comments were made:

‘I think I touched on this in the clinical phase more than basic science phase. I reflected on my learning about 30% in the basic phase and 70% in the clinical phase… when I knew things and I could relate to them, and I had the ability to answer questions from family and friends.’ [P4M]. ‘It depends on our exposure. If there is an exposure and I saw cases or a certain situation or such, I think about it, and sometimes it doesn’t have to be me who’s in the situation but someone else. I think about it and what they are thinking about. But not always because I would be overthinking.’ [PF3].

Some students took their reflections out of the college context to other real-life situations, as in the following examples:

‘It has happened to me in real life. I related what I studied with a situation—I mean the clinical relation of the lecture. It was kind of a fracture, and my diagnosis was right. We had the lecture the day before the incident or a day earlier.’ [P3M].

In contrast, some students focused their reflections on their study issues and mainly on the solutions to those difficulties, for example, the following:

‘For me, any problem facing me related to time management or difficulties or any studying issue, I preferred to talk with seniors because they have been through the exact same experience as mine, at the same college, and they have been taught by the same doctors as me, and this benefits me 200%.’ [P2F]. ‘If I find it difficult to concentrate, I will look for solutions such as reading from a book, reading from a website, and watching videos.’ [P1F]. ‘Block arrangements and the correlation of the information between blocks.’ [P5M]. ‘I remember that case very well, because we linked what we studied with what we saw.’ [P3M]. ‘We had a field visit. They have connected my knowledge with reality, especially with topics related to contamination and vaccines. It was years ago, but I remember it because it cleared up the picture.’ [P4M]. ‘The CDs which in general have helped me and made me think especially in differential diagnosis. I wish it is in all years, not just from fifth year.’ [P1F]. ‘We don’t have a university hospital, so the university should do something alternative to have clinical exposure and see patients in the earlier years.’ [P1F]. ‘It was patient history and clinical examination. Yes, I learned about them in basic science, but when I practiced them, they were different. I think if the university took advantage of the students, instead of us studying how to take a history and do a clinical examination theoretically, they could the students go to summer training, and we would benefit 100%.’ [P1F].

Extracurricular activities

The students described an issue of poor awareness of extracurricular activities early in their learning journeys. A lack of these activities and support was also mentioned as an issue, as described in the following:

‘As seniors, we didn’t know about them, and it is a requirement to participate in a student club for our CV. We didn’t know till this year.’ [P5M]. ‘So, I feel we lack this in our college, and we focus on studying. We don’t have student activities to motivate us and entertain us. Everything is under academic pressure, and the students will burn out, and they will not have the ability or passion to participate or represent the college of medicine in other forums. It is such a waste of excellent potential.’ [P3F]. ‘I wanted to establish a student club similar to the KSU [King Saud University] student club…. I didn’t get the university support and had a financial issue.’ [P3F].

Academic atmosphere and resources

In regards to facilities, there were some issues raised contrasting the old and new building, some were related to the separation of the male and female student campuses, and others related to the management of facilities:

In the old building, we had a public library. The atmosphere was actually encouraging you to study during your free time. Now we understand that the building is new, and this is the third year since we moved in. But, we hope that the future is better regarding this point. [P4M] We were moving constantly between the old college building, theater building, and the new college building. This was in regard to labs. We didn’t get the full advantage of them, and the lack of labs, especially for female students, and we were unsettled in one place. We have moved constantly. [P3F] We don’t have a garden in our building. We can’t sit outdoor. We’re always indoors from 8:00 AM to 2:00–3:00 PM, and we are forbidden to go out and do anything. We don’t have a place where we can breathe fresh air. [P4F] ‘If I compare it with another library in a different place, there is a difference. We have shortages in our resources, but what I see is, it is enough, and I don’t know. Additionally, nowadays, everybody is headed for software and soft copies. Honestly, now is different than three years ago; everyone has an iPad, which contains uncountable resources.’

The clinical posting in the local hospital had an impact mainly on the female students, with comments regarding the perceptions of inequality in the opportunities to learn due to gender:

‘I mean in terms of cases in King Khalid Hospital are so limited, and some of the doctors were not cooperative with us. The training at King Khalid Hospital was not the best. But there wasn’t inequality regarding our gender.’ [P1F].

As medical students, their focus was more on the clinical teaching-related factors that hindered their learning, such as limited clinical exposure. For most of their issues, they tried to link them to the setting (where they had limited clinical exposure in a small city hospital), gender difficulties due to cultural barriers, time management, and the number of students:

‘In terms of clinical exposure, we suffer. Some modules, for instance, are also practical, but we see the patient just once or twice during the module. This is due to several reasons, such as the hospital here, patients are few in number, and we don’t have a university hospital’ [P1M]. ‘Sometimes, it is a time matter and wondering how to study clinical skills in the college, then go to the hospital to see what we studied.’ [P4M]. ‘When I asked to go to a different hospital… unfortunately, in the female department, it was so hard to the extent that I went to the male department to transfer. I really wish it gets easier in the coming years.’ [P1F].

In contrast, some students acknowledged the effort that the college was making to overcome the limited clinical experience and appreciated the environment and resources, but with some critiques regarding certain facilities. This was shown in the maturity of the approach of some senior students as they advanced in their learning:

‘Clinical exposure… this matter is not only the students’ responsibility but also the responsibility of the college and the students at the same time. The college is trying to expose us and allow the students to do the examination once, twice, or more than that. However, some students are not interested. On the other hand, there are interested students, but the opportunity is not available for them.’ [P5M]. ‘The place, in my view… it is excellent in terms of theater and practicing places, except the library. It has limited resources.’ [P5M].

One issue appraised by most of the students was the safe environment and friendly atmosphere. The students, faculty, and administrative staff exhibit great cooperation, but that can be strained as the number of students increases:

‘The thing that we are doing is having a friendly meeting with doctors, and that depends on people’s free time. This will assist education more, and the general atmosphere would be more comfortable.’ [P4M]. ‘If the number of students is large and they don’t interact with each other, they won’t know each other. So, if there is group division, after a period of time, the group division changes.’ [P5M]. ‘There is huge cooperation between us and the doctors, and there is assistance and explanation when we ask for it, and they give their time off for us more than it is required from them, which is great.’ [P2F]. ‘The environment in general is good, to an extent. Some of the things were better than what we expected…. There is cooperation from the administration generally. For example, simple issues we faced, they have solved for us quickly.’ [P2F].

Faculty-related factors

Role as resource person.

The presence of a faculty member has a direct impact on the students: as a role model, a source of applied knowledge and skills that would be hard for the students themselves to perceive abstractly, and an accessible person in the institute with whom the students can easily interact. These various aspects are shown in the following examples:

‘Some doctors… the knowledge that they gave it to us… I cannot find it in any book or in any video, and the time I spend with them is precious.’ [P3F]. ‘The doctors are cooperative with us. We had good references, and everything was clear as a result. The outcome was very good, but in contrast, the other block was not.’ [P1F]. ‘They really provided a good explanation, especially for the clinical examination. It is impossible to forget how some lecturers explained clinical examination to us in a great and excellent way.’ [P1F]. ‘For example, during the breaks, I might find a certain doctor, and I’m free for half an hour. I sit with him and share ideas, or he explains something for me that will strengthen our relationship.’ [P4M]. ‘For clinical exposure, the faculty members have played their role and tried. There is a lot of bedside teaching in all the modules, and they have offered us a lot.’ [P4M].

Although the flip side of the potential positive impact of these various contributions is that some individual faculty members may not have the skills to guide the students or are failing to do so:

‘The problem is in some subjects the doctors are not fully knowledgeable or it’s not their subject. So, the doctor has difficulty in delivering the information to the students and that will cause a decrease of student knowledge.’ [P3F]. ‘I must present in a perfect way. On the other hand, the doctors who are teaching and giving us information are not presenting to us in a perfect way. They read from the iPad. They slide, open the book, and read from it .’ [P1F]. ‘The office hours of the faculty are a very important point that I want to mention. During the Directed Self Learning DSL, you weather have a meeting with doctors during their office hours, or you search about the topic. We have done it before, and we had time out of the lectures and office hours frame where we went to the doctor, so he clarified some points and explained them to us.’ [P1M]. ‘There is someone called a year coordinator, and he can play a major role, but for us as students, we didn’t feel that.’ [P4M]. ‘Some faculty members, if they knew that you are not interested in their subject (specialty), they won’t answer your questions.’ [P3F].

Role as evaluator (feedback provider)

The students appreciated the role of the feedback provided by the faculty on their performance and the impact of this practice on their development. However, they did address the feedback they received and the challenges in seeking feedback and how it was provided by the faculty:

‘Some of them, they give you feedback privately and explain weaknesses are strengths and what I need to change and to pay attention to some points that will come at residency.’ [P3F]. ‘When I present in their seminar and at the end, they give me feedback, so I develop myself. In reference to their feedback, I see an improvement in the next seminar, but other doctors, they don’t give feedback to their students, and that will lead to lack of improvement.’ [P4M]. ‘If we had better communication, it would be fantastic, and I think it is students’ responsibility…and if you know your seminar’s doctor, you search for him and show him your work.…and give you feedback. He will tell you what you need to add and what to remove.’ [P2M].

Role as mentor

Having a mentor is highly appreciated by students, and they admire the effort of the faculty to make it happen, both formally and informally. There is still the challenge of keeping it effective and appropriate for each level of student:

‘Having mentors is so great, but it needs more commitment because this situation is new to the students…. Honestly, the faculty were committed, and they tried to do so many things, such as, if you want to know your grade, go to your mentor, but I feel we need more sessions with our mentors .’ [P4M]. ‘Started the semester correctly, regular meetings with our mentors… then it decreased gradually, and it became a routine, just filling out papers or signing papers. Mentors are fundamental.’ [P1M]. ‘Before the pandemic, we organized with two doctors to meet in a coffee shop in the evening, and it was an informal meeting. It was so beneficial in terms of life experiences.’ [P1M]. ‘Also, the mentor has a role in impacting our experience. Doesn’t he? [two students verbally agreed with this after it was said.’ [P1M]. ‘We didn’t have a guide to show us what to do. There are so many things we were missing in the basic years.’ [P1F].

Social and personal factors

Educational challenges.

The students illustrated that their ability to cope with stressors of having a variety of educational activities that needed good preparation and often more time was challenging. Some students related those stressors to external factors affecting them, such as the short time frame of the courses, number of classes, nature of activities, and demands of the learning materials.

‘The experience so far is good from some students’ point of view. One of the problems that we face is the number of classes. Some days, we have five or six classes in one day that will reduce students’ understanding, and there’s no equal distribution for the lectures during that is one of the major problems we face .’ [P1M]. ‘There is no proportioning with the time. We have, for example, some modules; we will only have eight weeks, and the curriculum needs more time than that. Even in the exam, the quantity of the information is not proportional to the time, and I have been struggling with this issue myself.’ [P1M]. ‘The time of Problem Based Learning (PBLs) and CDs and these sorts of things. Honestly, they are putting us under psychological pressure during this time .’ [P2F].

Students’ interactions

The students’ interactions with each other have an important impact (positively and negatively) on the learning environments, as stated in the following examples:

‘For me, the thing that impacted me was the students. There is motivation and assistance between us. In addition, the faculty did a lot .’ [P3M]. ‘We notice that there is always a group of studious students, a group of average students, and so on. We need to promote the culture of strong people help weak people. Some students who are advanced academically shouldn’t be enclosed with each other and neglecting other students.’ [P5M]. ‘This phenomenon causes problems between students. For example, one group has a clarification of something or a particular source, and they don’t share it with other groups .’ [P1M]. ‘Comparing us with the female side, they always tell us that female students got higher marks then you and your level is less than female students’ level, and we struggle with this.’ [P1M]. ‘The second point that I feel helps is the relationships between the students. If the batch is connected and gathered, and they are helping each other, it is different than if they are doing silly actions or hiding information from each other. This will affect them. If there is group work and the students are helping each other constantly, it is different than if they are fighting each other.’ [P5M].

Psychological and financial support

Having a supportive context in the matter of psychological or financial support was also addressed as an issue impacting the learning environment:

‘Secondly, we lack psychological consultations and a clinic in the university, or at least, they could provide consultations and access to them .’ [P3F]. ‘Not just a program discount, but in general, some universities provide this to their students for free. They contract with shops, for example. Shops provide medical tools or scrubs .’ [P1F].

This study was conducted to explore the teaching and learning environment at the College of Medicine at Majmaah University. Insights from focus groups shed light on students’ experiences and perspectives within the educational context, revealing key themes in education, faculty interactions, and social as well as personal factors.

In the context of education, the importance of relevance in teaching methods cannot be overemphasized. Students in the current study valued teaching methods that effectively bridged theoretical concepts with practical application, enhancing the relevance of their learning. This finding was consistent with those from other contexts in which studies examined the dichotomy between perceived educational value and task engagement, as reported by various researchers [ 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. Learners perceiving a separation between learning and practical work tend to engage selectively with tasks, influenced by their perceived educational value.

This aspect from educators’ was found in earlier literature where educators were required to make frequent decisions regarding what information to incorporate based on its relevance to the curriculum and school policies [ 37 ]. This prescriptive nature of relevance aligns with the desire of students for learning that resonates with reality.

In addition, the findings revealed that students want an active role in decision-making regarding their learning, which hints at anticipated relevance, as mentioned by Diekema and Olsen [ 37 ]. Thus, the relevance of content and the perceived educational value of tasks are central to the learner’s experience. While the current study focused on the students’ perspectives, the literature suggests that both educators and students have unique insights to offer in this respect, and the bridge between theory and practice can only be truly constructed when these insights are aligned.

The results of our study highlight the diverse ways in which students engage in self-reflection. Some contextualized their reflections within the specific phase of their medical training or the extent of their clinical exposure. Others extrapolated their learning to real-life scenarios, which is relevant to the previous point of perceiving the value of learning, while another group focused exclusively on academic difficulties and their potential solutions.

Schei, Fuks and Boudreau [ 34 ] illustrate this concept of reflection well, noting its potential in addressing medical education complexities, though acknowledging challenges posed by human cognition. Schei and colleagues argued for a form of reflection in medical education that results in wise practice, encompassing both self-awareness and self-correcting behaviors, which aligns with our findings in which the students reflected on solutions to their academic challenges.

Hargreaves [ 38 ] offers an interesting perspective, suggesting that reflective competence can be developed progressively throughout an undergraduate program. This concept provides a plausible explanation for the variations observed in student reflections. As students move through different stages of their education, the nature and depth of their reflections evolve.

Griggs [ 39 ] explored the challenges associated with assessing reflective practices in medical education. Our study’s findings resonate with this, as during the focus group, the reflections leaned toward discussing personal experiences. Griggs’ emphasis on storytelling as a catalyst for deeper reflection also aligns with our observations. When students relate their learning to real-life situations, they are, in essence, crafting a narrative that might foster more profound reflection.

Students reported a noticeable lack of information and encouragement regarding participation in extracurricular activities, which the literature has indicated as important in fostering various essential practical and analytical skills and attitudes, such as leadership, commitment, responsibility [ 40 ], problem-solving, and essay-writing abilities [ 41 ].

Extracurricular activities has been reported foster student-community interactions, thereby enhancing learning experiences [ 40 ]. However, in the current study, the students felt that there was inadequate support for extracurricular activities, both financial and organizational, from the university, echoing the barriers identified by Fuji [ 40 ], such as a lack of support, limited positions, and poor availability of physical and financial resources. Students’ feelings of burnout and academic pressure find echoes in existing literature on the subject. which mentions poor time management and the risk of lowered academic performance as potential barriers to participation in extracurricular activities [ 42 ].

The findings from the current study and the literature collectively advocate for a more supportive environment for extracurricular activities in medical education.

The results illustrate various issues and positive aspects related to the educational facilities and environment experienced by students. A noticeable concern is the inadequacy of certain facilities amenities, such as a public library and outdoor spaces. Female students, in particular, highlighted issues like insufficient lab facilities and a perception of unequal distribution of resources during clinical postings at local hospitals. Similar results were identified by other studies that emphasized the importance of well-equipped educational environments with necessary facilities and resources for students’ motivation, participation, and self-regulation in learning processes [ 43 , 44 ].

However, a new educational setting has also been credited for fostering a safe and cooperative environment where students, faculty, and administrative staff effectively collaborate, enhancing the educational experience. The adaptability to technological advancements is evident, with a shift toward digital resources like software and iPads, which seem to partly mitigate the limitations of physical resources. This resonates with the literature’s emphasis on the necessity of up-to-date resources for effective learning [ 44 ].

It is thus clear that while there are areas for improvement, particularly concerning facility provisions and gender-related challenges, various elements of the new environment were conducive to fostering a positive and adaptive learning experience.

The students expressed their concerns with the limited clinical exposure and constraints faced due to limited patient availability and the absence of a university hospital. This resonates with the concerns documented in the existing literature. The literature has shown that students exhibit a strong inclination toward hands-on clinical practice [ 45 ]. In the current study, gender difficulties, coupled with cultural barriers, further complicated this scenario.

Notably, the educational institution’s role, including that of faculties, has been addressed in literature. For example, there is an emphasis on the indispensability of authentic learning experiences [ 46 ]. The students’ reflections highlighted an appreciation for the college’s concerted efforts to improve the deficits in clinical exposure, underlining the institutional responsibility of enhancing the students’ practical learning experience.

Furthermore, the students’ aspirations for enriched clinical encounters were similarly found in Saigal, Takemura [ 47 ], emphasizing the influential role of preclinical and clinical experiences in shaping medical students’ specialty preferences and overarching professional paths.

The multifaceted roles that faculty members play—as resource persons, evaluators, and mentors—are instrumental in molding students’ academic experience was evident in the study results.

Ingraham, Davidson and Yonge [ 48 ] emphasized this dimension of the faculty–student relationship, where themes of support and care are paramount. A key aspect of this is the knowledge-sharing that happens outside of structured teaching sessions. This was evident in the results from students’ appreciation for informal meetings with faculty members, where they discussed life experiences in a casual setting like a coffee shop. Such interactions emphasize the importance of faculty as a well-spring of real-world experiences, not just academic knowledge.

As reported by Shim and Walczak [ 49 ], the efficacy of pedagogical methods often rests on the quality of the feedback provided. The feedback received from faculty helps students identify their strengths, understand their areas of improvement, and map out future learning pathways. Smith [ 50 ] indicated that the relationship between faculty members as mentors and students as mentees is significant in shaping perceptions and satisfaction levels in academic settings. For students, having a mentor is more than just an academic advantage; it is an avenue for holistic growth. Students praised the faculty’s efforts in establishing mentorship and guidance through uncertainties, albeit suggesting the need for more consistent interactions. They also raised concerns about the changing dynamics of mentorship, where initial enthusiasm can sometimes wane, and the interaction can devolve into accomplishing routine paperwork.

Naturally, the students expressed that they encountered stressors during their educational journeys. The results revealed that students found managing multiple educational activities within limited timeframes to be particularly challenging. This aligns with the findings of Weber, Skodda [ 51 ], who identified organizational factors, such as inadequate information flow and exam-related issues, as significant contributors to students’ stress levels.

The students highlighted specific external factors exacerbating their stress levels, such as the unequal distribution of lectures, short course durations, and an overwhelming volume of information relative to the time until each exam. These findings align with several studies in Saudi Arabia [ 52 , 53 ] emphasizing heightened stress levels in medical students due to the intensity of the curriculum and academic achievement. Similarly, Hill, Goicochea and Merlo [ 54 ] highlighted system-level concerns, such as administrative and assessment-related pressures, corroborating our findings regarding the impact of external and organizational factors on student stress.

As suggested by Hill, Goicochea and Merlo [ 54 ], our study highlights the necessity for structural consideration in medical education to create a more balanced and less stressful academic environment, thereby enhancing students’ ability to cope with the demands of their education.

The students highlighted the role of peer interactions in the learning process. Similarly, Akinla, Hagan and Atiomo [ 55 ] emphasized the value of near-peer mentoring in fostering professional and personal development. The students’ revealed that these interactions encompassed collaboration, as well as competition and comparison, and were helpful with their stressors and mental health challenges [ 54 , 56 ]. In particular, the gender-based comparisons and the withholding of information among groups revealed a competitive environment that can exacerbate stress and hinder collective academic progress.

Students emphasized the essential role of psychological and financial support in enhancing the medical students’ learning environment. This finding is consistent with the broader educational literature that emphasizes the crucial role of financial and mental health services in supporting students’ well-being and academic success [ 53 , 56 ].

The literature and student feedback collectively emphasize the importance of enhancing the supportive infrastructure within educational environments. Such improvements, including mental health services and financial assistance, are essential for creating a more supportive and conducive learning environment [ 52 ].

This study has highlighted the critical interaction of educational content, faculty involvement, and social and personal elements in shaping students’ educational experiences. A key finding is the students’ strong appreciation for educational relevance and their autonomy in decision-making. Faculty roles, encompassing resources, evaluators, and mentors, are central to shaping both the academic experience and supporting students’ development. Additionally, the necessity to enhance physical learning environments and facilities to meet evolving educational needs is underscored. This study contributes to existing literature by pinpointing specific improvement areas, emphasizing the importance of student involvement and faculty roles in the educational process.

Recommendations

Based on our study’s findings, we recommend several enhancements to the educational experience in medical colleges. Emphasizing practical applications in the curriculum is crucial to bridge the gap between theory and practice, making learning more relevant and engaging for students.

Student involvement in decision-making processes is essential for fostering a sense of ownership in their educational journey. Implementing structured reflection activities tailored to different curriculum stages can deepen students’ engagement and understanding.

Incorporating practical case studies and scenarios will enable students to relate their learning to real-life situations, enhancing practical knowledge application. Equally important is encouraging student participation in extracurricular activities, which aids in developing essential life skills.

Addressing facility inadequacies, such as enhancing library resources and outdoor spaces, is necessary to create a conducive learning environment. Ensuring equal clinical opportunities for all students, irrespective of gender, and addressing cultural barriers in clinical practice, will promote a more inclusive educational setting.

Strengthening mentorship programs is vital for providing ongoing support to students. Adjusting structural elements of the curriculum, like lecture distribution and course durations, can alleviate student stress, contributing to a more balanced academic environment.

Promoting collaboration over competition among students will foster a supportive educational atmosphere. Finally, enhancing psychological and financial support services, including counseling and financial aid, is crucial for students’ overall well-being and success.

These targeted recommendations aim to improve various aspects of medical education, ensuring a higher quality of learning and student satisfaction.

Data availability

The qualitative data used in the current study are not publicly available as the related quotes are shared in the results section, however they can be available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We deeply appreciate Shams Khalid Almutawa from University of Strathclyde for her contribution in coding and analysis.

This research is funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Researches Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R353) Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Saudi Arabia.

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Almansour, M., Almoayad, F. Exploring challenges and perceptions in the learning environment: an online qualitative study of medical students. BMC Med Educ 24 , 147 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05116-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05116-8

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what is critical analysis of literature review

Developing public relations as a foundation for public trust: a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis

  • Review Paper
  • Published: 19 February 2024
  • Volume 4 , article number  59 , ( 2024 )

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  • Dani Fadillah   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4387-4501 1 &
  • Zhou Huiquan 2  

This study aimed to analyze the thematic structure and trends in scientific publications discussing the relationship between public relations development and public-trust and provide a roadmap for future research investigating this topic. This study used systematic literature review (SLR) and bibliometric analysis (BA) to describe public-trust-based public relations development and reveal its bibliometric profile. The data were obtained from the 2013–2022 Scopus database by identifying the research on public relations and public-trust, so the keywords used are (“public relations development” or “public relations”) and (“public-trust” or “public trust”). The results show that the publication examining the public relations and public-trust leads to stable total publication. Countries contributing to this topic are the United Kingdom, United States, Australia, Netherlands, and Canada. Meanwhile, the universities mostly credited with high publications on this topic are University of Oxford, Kong’s College London, The University of Sydney, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, University of Michigan. This study discovers that most of the articles about public relations and public-trust discuss public health, organization and management, interpersonal communication, and perception. The results indicated that the structure and trends in thematic academic studies provide a roadmap for future studies investigating public relations development and public-trust. In this context, communication researchers should interconnect their scientific field with psychology, specifically public-trust. Therefore, the development of a public-trust-based public relations can run well. This article attempted to gain insights into how research on public relations and public-trust has progressed using the systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis.

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Fadillah, D., Huiquan, Z. Developing public relations as a foundation for public trust: a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis. SN Soc Sci 4 , 59 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-023-00813-5

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