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Research Guides

Multiple Case Studies

Nadia Alqahtani and Pengtong Qu

Description

The case study approach is popular across disciplines in education, anthropology, sociology, psychology, medicine, law, and political science (Creswell, 2013). It is both a research method and a strategy (Creswell, 2013; Yin, 2017). In this type of research design, a case can be an individual, an event, or an entity, as determined by the research questions. There are two variants of the case study: the single-case study and the multiple-case study. The former design can be used to study and understand an unusual case, a critical case, a longitudinal case, or a revelatory case. On the other hand, a multiple-case study includes two or more cases or replications across the cases to investigate the same phenomena (Lewis-Beck, Bryman & Liao, 2003; Yin, 2017). …a multiple-case study includes two or more cases or replications across the cases to investigate the same phenomena

The difference between the single- and multiple-case study is the research design; however, they are within the same methodological framework (Yin, 2017). Multiple cases are selected so that “individual case studies either (a) predict similar results (a literal replication) or (b) predict contrasting results but for anticipatable reasons (a theoretical replication)” (p. 55). When the purpose of the study is to compare and replicate the findings, the multiple-case study produces more compelling evidence so that the study is considered more robust than the single-case study (Yin, 2017).

To write a multiple-case study, a summary of individual cases should be reported, and researchers need to draw cross-case conclusions and form a cross-case report (Yin, 2017). With evidence from multiple cases, researchers may have generalizable findings and develop theories (Lewis-Beck, Bryman & Liao, 2003).

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Lewis-Beck, M., Bryman, A. E., & Liao, T. F. (2003). The Sage encyclopedia of social science research methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Yin, R. K. (2017). Case study research and applications: Design and methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Key Research Books and Articles on Multiple Case Study Methodology

Yin discusses how to decide if a case study should be used in research. Novice researchers can learn about research design, data collection, and data analysis of different types of case studies, as well as writing a case study report.

Chapter 2 introduces four major types of research design in case studies: holistic single-case design, embedded single-case design, holistic multiple-case design, and embedded multiple-case design. Novice researchers will learn about the definitions and characteristics of different designs. This chapter also teaches researchers how to examine and discuss the reliability and validity of the designs.

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2017). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches . Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

This book compares five different qualitative research designs: narrative research, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study. It compares the characteristics, data collection, data analysis and representation, validity, and writing-up procedures among five inquiry approaches using texts with tables. For each approach, the author introduced the definition, features, types, and procedures and contextualized these components in a study, which was conducted through the same method. Each chapter ends with a list of relevant readings of each inquiry approach.

This book invites readers to compare these five qualitative methods and see the value of each approach. Readers can consider which approach would serve for their research contexts and questions, as well as how to design their research and conduct the data analysis based on their choice of research method.

Günes, E., & Bahçivan, E. (2016). A multiple case study of preservice science teachers’ TPACK: Embedded in a comprehensive belief system. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 11 (15), 8040-8054.

In this article, the researchers showed the importance of using technological opportunities in improving the education process and how they enhanced the students’ learning in science education. The study examined the connection between “Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge” (TPACK) and belief system in a science teaching context. The researchers used the multiple-case study to explore the effect of TPACK on the preservice science teachers’ (PST) beliefs on their TPACK level. The participants were three teachers with the low, medium, and high level of TPACK confidence. Content analysis was utilized to analyze the data, which were collected by individual semi-structured interviews with the participants about their lesson plans. The study first discussed each case, then compared features and relations across cases. The researchers found that there was a positive relationship between PST’s TPACK confidence and TPACK level; when PST had higher TPACK confidence, the participant had a higher competent TPACK level and vice versa.

Recent Dissertations Using Multiple Case Study Methodology

Milholland, E. S. (2015). A multiple case study of instructors utilizing Classroom Response Systems (CRS) to achieve pedagogical goals . Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 3706380)

The researcher of this study critiques the use of Classroom Responses Systems by five instructors who employed this program five years ago in their classrooms. The researcher conducted the multiple-case study methodology and categorized themes. He interviewed each instructor with questions about their initial pedagogical goals, the changes in pedagogy during teaching, and the teaching techniques individuals used while practicing the CRS. The researcher used the multiple-case study with five instructors. He found that all instructors changed their goals during employing CRS; they decided to reduce the time of lecturing and to spend more time engaging students in interactive activities. This study also demonstrated that CRS was useful for the instructors to achieve multiple learning goals; all the instructors provided examples of the positive aspect of implementing CRS in their classrooms.

Li, C. L. (2010). The emergence of fairy tale literacy: A multiple case study on promoting critical literacy of children through a juxtaposed reading of classic fairy tales and their contemporary disruptive variants . Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 3572104)

To explore how children’s development of critical literacy can be impacted by their reactions to fairy tales, the author conducted a multiple-case study with 4 cases, in which each child was a unit of analysis. Two Chinese immigrant children (a boy and a girl) and two American children (a boy and a girl) at the second or third grade were recruited in the study. The data were collected through interviews, discussions on fairy tales, and drawing pictures. The analysis was conducted within both individual cases and cross cases. Across four cases, the researcher found that the young children’s’ knowledge of traditional fairy tales was built upon mass-media based adaptations. The children believed that the representations on mass-media were the original stories, even though fairy tales are included in the elementary school curriculum. The author also found that introducing classic versions of fairy tales increased children’s knowledge in the genre’s origin, which would benefit their understanding of the genre. She argued that introducing fairy tales can be the first step to promote children’s development of critical literacy.

Asher, K. C. (2014). Mediating occupational socialization and occupational individuation in teacher education: A multiple case study of five elementary pre-service student teachers . Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 3671989)

This study portrayed five pre-service teachers’ teaching experience in their student teaching phase and explored how pre-service teachers mediate their occupational socialization with occupational individuation. The study used the multiple-case study design and recruited five pre-service teachers from a Midwestern university as five cases. Qualitative data were collected through interviews, classroom observations, and field notes. The author implemented the case study analysis and found five strategies that the participants used to mediate occupational socialization with occupational individuation. These strategies were: 1) hindering from practicing their beliefs, 2) mimicking the styles of supervising teachers, 3) teaching in the ways in alignment with school’s existing practice, 4) enacting their own ideas, and 5) integrating and balancing occupational socialization and occupational individuation. The study also provided recommendations and implications to policymakers and educators in teacher education so that pre-service teachers can be better supported.

Multiple Case Studies Copyright © 2019 by Nadia Alqahtani and Pengtong Qu is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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• Design and Development Research (DDR) For Instructional Design
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• Case Study Design in an Applied Doctorate

Qualitative Research Designs

Case study design, using case study design in the applied doctoral experience (ade), applicability of case study design to applied problem of practice, case study design references.

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The field of qualitative research there are a number of research designs (also referred to as “traditions” or “genres”), including case study, phenomenology, narrative inquiry, action research, ethnography, grounded theory, as well as a number of critical genres including Feminist theory, indigenous research, critical race theory and cultural studies. The choice of research design is directly tied to and must be aligned with your research problem and purpose. As Bloomberg & Volpe (2019) explain:

Choice of research design is directly tied to research problem and purpose. As the researcher, you actively create the link among problem, purpose, and design through a process of reflecting on problem and purpose, focusing on researchable questions, and considering how to best address these questions. Thinking along these lines affords a research study methodological congruence (p. 38).

Case study is an in-depth exploration from multiple perspectives of a bounded social phenomenon, be this a social system such as a program, event, institution, organization, or community (Stake, 1995, 2005; Yin, 2018). Case study is employed across disciplines, including education, health care, social work, sociology, and organizational studies. The purpose is to generate understanding and deep insights to inform professional practice, policy development, and community or social action (Bloomberg 2018).

Yin (2018) and Stake (1995, 2005), two of the key proponents of case study methodology, use different terms to describe case studies. Yin categorizes case studies as exploratory or descriptive . The former is used to explore those situations in which the intervention being evaluated has no clear single set of outcomes. The latter is used to describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. Stake identifies case studies as intrinsic or instrumental , and he proposes that a primary distinction in designing case studies is between single and multiple (or collective) case study designs. A single case study may be an instrumental case study (research focuses on an issue or concern in one bounded case) or an intrinsic case study (the focus is on the case itself because the case presents a unique situation). A longitudinal case study design is chosen when the researcher seeks to examine the same single case at two or more different points in time or to capture trends over time. A multiple case study design is used when a researcher seeks to determine the prevalence or frequency of a particular phenomenon. This approach is useful when cases are used for purposes of a cross-case analysis in order to compare, contrast, and synthesize perspectives regarding the same issue. The focus is on the analysis of diverse cases to determine how these confirm the findings within or between cases, or call the findings into question.

Case study affords significant interaction with research participants, providing an in-depth picture of the phenomenon (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019). Research is extensive, drawing on multiple methods of data collection, and involves multiple data sources. Triangulation is critical in attempting to obtain an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study and adds rigor, breadth, and depth to the study and provides corroborative evidence of the data obtained. Analysis of data can be holistic or embedded—that is, dealing with the whole or parts of the case (Yin, 2018). With multiple cases the typical analytic strategy is to provide detailed description of themes within each case (within-case analysis), followed by thematic analysis across cases (cross-case analysis), providing insights regarding how individual cases are comparable along important dimensions. Research culminates in the production of a detailed description of a setting and its participants, accompanied by an analysis of the data for themes or patterns (Stake, 1995, 2005; Yin, 2018). In addition to thick, rich description, the researcher’s interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations contribute to the reader’s overall understanding of the case study.

Analysis of findings should show that the researcher has attended to all the data, should address the most significant aspects of the case, and should demonstrate familiarity with the prevailing thinking and discourse about the topic. The goal of case study design (as with all qualitative designs) is not generalizability but rather transferability —that is, how (if at all) and in what ways understanding and knowledge can be applied in similar contexts and settings. The qualitative researcher attempts to address the issue of transferability by way of thick, rich description that will provide the basis for a case or cases to have relevance and potential application across a broader context.

Qualitative research methods ask the questions of "what" and "how" a phenomenon is understood in a real-life context (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019). In the education field, qualitative research methods uncover educational experiences and practices because qualitative research allows the researcher to reveal new knowledge and understanding. Moreover, qualitative descriptive case studies describe, analyze and interpret events that explain the reasoning behind specific phenomena (Bloomberg, 2018). As such, case study design can be the foundation for a rigorous study within the Applied Doctoral Experience (ADE).

Case study design is an appropriate research design to consider when conceptualizing and conducting a dissertation research study that is based on an applied problem of practice with inherent real-life educational implications. Case study researchers study current, real-life cases that are in progress so that they can gather accurate information that is current. This fits well with the ADE program, as students are typically exploring a problem of practice. Because of the flexibility of the methods used, a descriptive design provides the researcher with the opportunity to choose data collection methods that are best suited to a practice-based research purpose, and can include individual interviews, focus groups, observation, surveys, and critical incident questionnaires. Methods are triangulated to contribute to the study’s trustworthiness. In selecting the set of data collection methods, it is important that the researcher carefully consider the alignment between research questions and the type of data that is needed to address these. Each data source is one piece of the “puzzle,” that contributes to the researcher’s holistic understanding of a phenomenon. The various strands of data are woven together holistically to promote a deeper understanding of the case and its application to an educationally-based problem of practice.

Research studies within the Applied Doctoral Experience (ADE) will be practical in nature and focus on problems and issues that inform educational practice.  Many of the types of studies that fall within the ADE framework are exploratory, and align with case study design. Case study design fits very well with applied problems related to educational practice, as the following set of examples illustrate:

Elementary Bilingual Education Teachers’ Self-Efficacy in Teaching English Language Learners: A Qualitative Case Study

The problem to be addressed in the proposed study is that some elementary bilingual education teachers’ beliefs about their lack of preparedness to teach the English language may negatively impact the language proficiency skills of Hispanic ELLs (Ernst-Slavit & Wenger, 2016; Fuchs et al., 2018; Hoque, 2016). The purpose of the proposed qualitative descriptive case study was to explore the perspectives and experiences of elementary bilingual education teachers regarding their perceived lack of preparedness to teach the English language and how this may impact the language proficiency of Hispanic ELLs.

Exploring Minority Teachers Experiences Pertaining to their Value in Education: A Single Case Study of Teachers in New York City

The problem is that minority K-12 teachers are underrepresented in the United States, with research indicating that school leaders and teachers in schools that are populated mainly by black students, staffed mostly by white teachers who may be unprepared to deal with biases and stereotypes that are ingrained in schools (Egalite, Kisida, & Winters, 2015; Milligan & Howley, 2015). The purpose of this qualitative exploratory single case study was to develop a clearer understanding of minority teachers’ experiences concerning the under-representation of minority K-12 teachers in urban school districts in the United States since there are so few of them.

Exploring the Impact of an Urban Teacher Residency Program on Teachers’ Cultural Intelligence: A Qualitative Case Study

The problem to be addressed by this case study is that teacher candidates often report being unprepared and ill-equipped to effectively educate culturally diverse students (Skepple, 2015; Beutel, 2018). The purpose of this study was to explore and gain an in-depth understanding of the perceived impact of an urban teacher residency program in urban Iowa on teachers’ cultural competence using the cultural intelligence (CQ) framework (Earley & Ang, 2003).

Qualitative Case Study that Explores Self-Efficacy and Mentorship on Women in Academic Administrative Leadership Roles

The problem was that female school-level administrators might be less likely to experience mentorship, thereby potentially decreasing their self-efficacy (Bing & Smith, 2019; Brown, 2020; Grant, 2021). The purpose of this case study was to determine to what extent female school-level administrators in the United States who had a mentor have a sense of self-efficacy and to examine the relationship between mentorship and self-efficacy.

Suburban Teacher and Administrator Perceptions of Culturally Responsive Teaching to Promote Connectedness in Students of Color: A Qualitative Case Study

The problem to be addressed in this study is the racial discrimination experienced by students of color in suburban schools and the resulting negative school experience (Jara & Bloomsbury, 2020; Jones, 2019; Kohli et al., 2017; Wandix-White, 2020). The purpose of this case study is to explore how culturally responsive practices can counteract systemic racism and discrimination in suburban schools thereby meeting the needs of students of color by creating positive learning experiences. 

As you can see, all of these studies were well suited to qualitative case study design. In each of these studies, the applied research problem and research purpose were clearly grounded in educational practice as well as directly aligned with qualitative case study methodology. In the Applied Doctoral Experience (ADE), you will be focused on addressing or resolving an educationally relevant research problem of practice. As such, your case study, with clear boundaries, will be one that centers on a real-life authentic problem in your field of practice that you believe is in need of resolution or improvement, and that the outcome thereof will be educationally valuable.

Bloomberg, L. D. (2018). Case study method. In B. B. Frey (Ed.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of educational research, measurement, and evaluation (pp. 237–239). SAGE. https://go.openathens.net/redirector/nu.edu?url=https%3A%2F%2Fmethods.sagepub.com%2FReference%2Fthe-sage-encyclopedia-of-educational-research-measurement-and-evaluation%2Fi4294.xml

Bloomberg, L. D. & Volpe, M. (2019). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A road map from beginning to end . (4th Ed.). SAGE.

Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. SAGE.

Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443–466). SAGE.

Yin, R. (2018). Case study research and applications: Designs and methods. SAGE.

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How to Write a Multiple Case Study Effectively

Table of Contents

Have you ever been assigned to write a multiple case study but don’t know where to begin? Are you intimidated by the complexity and challenge it brings? Don’t worry! This article will help you learn how to write a multiple case study effectively that will make an impactful impression. So, let’s begin by defining a multiple case study.

What Is a Multiple Case Study?

A multiple case study is a research method examining several different entities. It helps researchers gain an understanding of the entities’ individual characteristics and disclose any shared patterns or insights. This type of investigation often uses both qualitative and quantitative data. These are usually collected from interviews, surveys, field observations, archival records, and other sources. This is done to analyze the relationships between each entity and its environment. The results can provide valuable insights for policymakers and decision-makers.

Why Is a Multiple Case Study Important?

A multiple case study is invaluable in providing a comprehensive view of a particular issue or phenomenon. Analyzing a range of cases allows for comparisons and contrasts to be drawn. And this can help identify broader trends, implications, and causes that might otherwise remain undetected. This method is particularly useful in developing theories and testing hypotheses. This is because the range of data collected provides more robust evidence than what could be achieved from one single case alone.

How to Write a Multiple Case Study

Below are the key steps on how to write a multiple case study :

1. Brainstorm Potential Case Studies

Before beginning your multiple case study, you should brainstorm potential cases suitable for the research project. Consider both theoretical and practical implications when deciding which cases are most appropriate. Think about how these cases can best illustrate the issue or question at hand. Make sure to consider all relevant information before making any decisions.

2. Conduct Background Research on Each Case

After selecting the individual cases for your multiple case study, the next step is to do background research for each case. Conducting extensive background research on each case will help you better understand the context of the study. This research will allow you to form an educated opinion and provide insight into the problems and challenges that each case may present.

3. Establish a Research Methodology

A successful multiple-case study requires a sound research methodology. This includes deciding on the methods of data collection and analysis and setting objectives. It also involves developing criteria for evaluating the results and determining what kind of data needs to be collected from each case. All of this must be done carefully, considering the purpose of the study and its outcomes.

4. Collect Data

Once a research method has been established, it is time to collect data from each case included in the study. Depending on the nature of the research project, this could involve interviewing participants, gathering statistics, or observing behaviors in certain settings. It is crucial to ensure that all data collected is accurate and reliable.

5. Analyze & Interpret Data

After the data has been collected, it must be analyzed to draw meaningful conclusions from it. This process involves examining patterns and trends within the data, identifying relationships between variables, and looking for commonalities among different cases. These findings must then be interpreted in light of the initial questions posed by the study.

6. Write the Report

After completing the analysis and interpretation of the data, it is finally time to write up the results of the multiple case study. This should include a summary of the key findings and an explanation of why these findings are significant. In addition, the limitations of the study should be acknowledged, along with recommendations for future research in this area.

Writing a multiple case study requires careful planning and execution. But the process becomes easier when you know the proper steps to conduct and create a multiple case study. It requires you to focus on the design of the study, including the sample chosen and the research methodology established. Conducting background research on each case and collecting data are also crucial steps in the process. To guide you through the process, this article outlines the key steps to help you easily write a well-structured multiple-case study .

Abir Ghenaiet

Abir is a data analyst and researcher. Among her interests are artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing. As a humanitarian and educator, she actively supports women in tech and promotes diversity.

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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

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When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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A multiple case study is a research method that uses multiple research sites to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a particular phenomenon. It examines multiple cases in order to analyze patterns and the relationships between variables. This type of research method is used in management to gain a deeper understanding of a particular problem or issue. It is a systematic approach to gathering and analyzing data from multiple different sources such as individuals, organizations, or communities. The multiple case study approach allows researchers to gain greater insight into complex problems by considering a variety of perspectives, contexts, and sources of information .

• 1 Example of multiple case study
• 2 When to use multiple case study
• 3 Types of multiple case study
• 4 Steps of multiple case study
• 5 Limitations of multiple case study
• 6 Other approaches related to multiple case study
• 7 References

Example of multiple case study

• A multiple case study example could be a study of different companies in the same industry in order to analyze the differences in their strategies and performance. For instance, a researcher may examine three companies in the automotive industry and determine what strategies have been successful and which have not. They may then compare the results of these three companies in order to determine which strategies are most effective.
• Another example of a multiple case study could be an examination of how different countries have responded to the COVID-19 pandemic. In this case, the researcher could look at different strategies adopted by countries worldwide and analyze the results of those strategies. They could then compare the results in order to determine which strategies have been most successful in mitigating the spread of the virus.
• A third example could be a study of different schools and how they have adapted to the online learning environment . The researcher could look at the successes and failures of different schools in order to determine which strategies are most effective in transitioning to remote learning. They could then use these findings to suggest changes and improvements to the schools’ policies and procedures .

When to use multiple case study

A multiple case study approach is a useful tool for researchers looking to gain a deeper understanding of complex issues. This method can be used in a variety of contexts, such as studying organizational management , social phenomena, or public health interventions. It can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the problem by considering a variety of perspectives, contexts, and sources of information. Examples of when multiple case studies can be used include:

• Examining the effectiveness of a particular policy or program in multiple contexts.
• Exploring the dynamics of organizational change across different settings.
• Investigating the impact of a cultural or social phenomenon on different communities.
• Analyzing the differences in responses to a public health intervention between populations.
• Understanding the dynamics of an issue in order to inform the development of new policies or practices.

Types of multiple case study

• Exploratory multiple case study: An exploratory multiple case study is used to explore a research problem in greater detail. It is used when the research question or problem is not well-defined, or when the researcher is uncertain about the best approach to study the problem. This type of multiple case study is often used to generate new ideas and to identify potential research topics.
• Explanatory Multiple Case Study: An explanatory multiple case study is used to explain a research problem in detail. It is used when the researcher is looking to explain the cause of an event or phenomenon. This type of multiple case study is used to identify patterns and relationships between variables, and to identify potential explanations for the phenomenon being studied.
• Descriptive Multiple Case Study: A descriptive multiple case study is used to describe a research problem in detail. It is used when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive overview of a particular topic or phenomenon. This type of multiple case study is useful for providing a detailed description of a particular event or phenomenon and its context.
• Comparative Multiple Case Study: A comparative multiple case study is used to compare two or more research sites. It is used when the researcher wants to compare and contrast a phenomenon across multiple sites. This type of multiple case study is useful for examining similarities and differences between different research sites.
• Embedded Multiple Case Study: An embedded multiple case study is used to embed a single case study within a larger research project . It is used when the researcher wants to incorporate a single case study within a larger research project. This type of multiple case study is useful for exploring the complexities of a particular research problem, and for providing an in-depth understanding of a particular phenomenon.

Steps of multiple case study

A multiple case study is a research method that uses multiple research sites to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a particular phenomenon. The multiple case study approach allows researchers to gain greater insight into complex problems by considering a variety of perspectives, contexts, and sources of information. The following steps are necessary for conducting a successful multiple case study:

• Selecting the research sites : The first step in a multiple case study is to select the research sites. This requires careful consideration of factors such as the size and scope of the problem, the availability of data and resources, and the accessibility of the research sites.
• Gathering data : After selecting the research sites, the next step is to gather data. This can be done through interviews, surveys, focus groups, and other data collection methods .
• Analyzing the data : Once the data has been gathered, it must be analyzed in order to identify patterns and relationships between variables. This requires careful analysis of the data and may involve using statistical methods such as regression and factor analysis.
• Drawing conclusions : After the data has been analyzed, the next step is to draw conclusions. This involves synthesizing the data and making sense of it in order to answer the research question.
• Reporting the results : The final step is to report the results of the multiple case study. This can be done through a written report, a presentation, or a multimedia format.

Limitations of multiple case study

Multiple case studies have some limitations that should be taken into consideration when using this method. These limitations include:

• The multiple case study approach can be time consuming and resource intensive, as researchers must collect and analyze data from multiple different sources.
• It can be difficult to identify patterns and relationships between variables when studying multiple cases.
• The data collected from multiple cases may be difficult to generalize to a larger population.
• The multiple case study approach is limited to studying phenomena in limited contexts, and does not provide a holistic picture of a phenomenon.
• It can be difficult to control for all variables in a multiple case study, which can lead to inaccurate results.

Other approaches related to multiple case study

A multiple case study is a research method that uses multiple research sites to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a particular phenomenon. Other approaches related to multiple case studies include:

• Qualitative research : Qualitative research is an empirical research approach which focuses on understanding the perspectives, experiences, and beliefs of people in their contexts. It typically involves interviews, observations, and other forms of data collection.
• Grounded Theory : Grounded theory is an inductive research method that examines how social processes are created, maintained, and changed. It involves the systematic collection and analysis of data to generate new theory.
• Action Research : Action research is a type of research that involves the active participation of stakeholders in the research process . It focuses on identifying and resolving practical problems in an organization or community.
• Gustafsson, J. (2017). Single case studies vs. multiple case studies: A comparative study .
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16 case study examples (+ 3 templates to make your own)

I like to think of case studies as a business's version of a resume. It highlights what the business can do, lends credibility to its offer, and contains only the positive bullet points that paint it in the best light possible.

Imagine if the guy running your favorite taco truck followed you home so that he could "really dig into how that burrito changed your life." I see the value in the practice. People naturally prefer a tried-and-true burrito just as they prefer tried-and-true products or services.

To help you showcase your success and flesh out your burrito questionnaire, I've put together some case study examples and key takeaways.

What is a case study?

A case study is an in-depth analysis of how your business, product, or service has helped past clients. It can be a document, a webpage, or a slide deck that showcases measurable, real-life results.

For example, if you're a SaaS company, you can analyze your customers' results after a few months of using your product to measure its effectiveness. You can then turn this analysis into a case study that further proves to potential customers what your product can do and how it can help them overcome their challenges.

It changes the narrative from "I promise that we can do X and Y for you" to "Here's what we've done for businesses like yours, and we can do it for you, too."

16 case study examples 

While most case studies follow the same structure, quite a few try to break the mold and create something unique. Some businesses lean heavily on design and presentation, while others pursue a detailed, stat-oriented approach. Some businesses try to mix both.

There's no set formula to follow, but I've found that the best case studies utilize impactful design to engage readers and leverage statistics and case details to drive the point home. A case study typically highlights the companies, the challenges, the solution, and the results. The examples below will help inspire you to do it, too.

1. .css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class]{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;cursor:pointer;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class]{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='ocean']{color:#3d4592;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='ocean']:hover{color:#2b2358;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='ocean']:focus{color:#3d4592;outline-color:#3d4592;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='white']{color:#fffdf9;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='white']:hover{color:#a8a5a0;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='white']:focus{color:#fffdf9;outline-color:#fffdf9;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='primary']{color:#3d4592;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='primary']:hover{color:#2b2358;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='primary']:focus{color:#3d4592;outline-color:#3d4592;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='secondary']{color:#fffdf9;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='secondary']:hover{color:#a8a5a0;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='secondary']:focus{color:#fffdf9;outline-color:#fffdf9;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Volcanica Coffee and AdRoll

People love a good farm-to-table coffee story, and boy am I one of them. But I've shared this case study with you for more reasons than my love of coffee. I enjoyed this study because it was written as though it was a letter.

In this case study, the founder of Volcanica Coffee talks about the journey from founding the company to personally struggling with learning and applying digital marketing to finding and enlisting AdRoll's services.

It felt more authentic, less about AdRoll showcasing their worth and more like a testimonial from a grateful and appreciative client. After the story, the case study wraps up with successes, milestones, and achievements. Note that quite a few percentages are prominently displayed at the top, providing supporting evidence that backs up an inspiring story.

Takeaway: Highlight your goals and measurable results to draw the reader in and provide concise, easily digestible information.

2. Taylor Guitars and Airtable

This Airtable case study on Taylor Guitars comes as close as one can to an optimal structure. It features a video that represents the artistic nature of the client, highlighting key achievements and dissecting each element of Airtable's influence.

It also supplements each section with a testimonial or quote from the client, using their insights as a catalyst for the case study's narrative. For example, the case study quotes the social media manager and project manager's insights regarding team-wide communication and access before explaining in greater detail.

Takeaway: Highlight pain points your business solves for its client, and explore that influence in greater detail.

3. EndeavourX and Figma

My favorite part of Figma's case study is highlighting why EndeavourX chose its solution. You'll notice an entire section on what Figma does for teams and then specifically for EndeavourX.

It also places a heavy emphasis on numbers and stats. The study, as brief as it is, still manages to pack in a lot of compelling statistics about what's possible with Figma.

Takeaway: Showcase the "how" and "why" of your product's differentiators and how they benefit your customers.

4. ActiveCampaign and Zapier

Zapier's case study leans heavily on design, using graphics to present statistics and goals in a manner that not only remains consistent with the branding but also actively pushes it forward, drawing users' eyes to the information most important to them. 

The graphics, emphasis on branding elements, and cause/effect style tell the story without requiring long, drawn-out copy that risks boring readers. Instead, the cause and effect are concisely portrayed alongside the client company's information for a brief and easily scannable case study.

Takeaway: Lean on design to call attention to the most important elements of your case study, and make sure it stays consistent with your branding.

5. Ironclad and OpenAI

In true OpenAI fashion, this case study is a block of text. There's a distinct lack of imagery, but the study features a narrated video walking readers through the product.

The lack of imagery and color may not be the most inviting, but utilizing video format is commendable. It helps thoroughly communicate how OpenAI supported Ironclad in a way that allows the user to sit back, relax, listen, and be impressed. 

Takeaway: Get creative with the media you implement in your case study. Videos can be a very powerful addition when a case study requires more detailed storytelling.

6. Shopify and GitHub

GitHub's case study on Shopify is a light read. It addresses client pain points and discusses the different aspects its product considers and improves for clients. It touches on workflow issues, internal systems, automation, and security. It does a great job of representing what one company can do with GitHub.

To drive the point home, the case study features colorful quote callouts from the Shopify team, sharing their insights and perspectives on the partnership, the key issues, and how they were addressed.

Takeaway: Leverage quotes to boost the authoritativeness and trustworthiness of your case study. 

7 . Audible and Contentful

Contentful's case study on Audible features almost every element a case study should. It includes not one but two videos and clearly outlines the challenge, solution, and outcome before diving deeper into what Contentful did for Audible. The language is simple, and the writing is heavy with quotes and personal insights.

This case study is a uniquely original experience. The fact that the companies in question are perhaps two of the most creative brands out there may be the reason. I expected nothing short of a detailed analysis, a compelling story, and video content. 

Takeaway: Inject some brand voice into the case study, and create assets that tell the story for you.

8 . Zoom and Asana

Asana's case study on Zoom is longer than the average piece and features detailed data on Zoom's growth since 2020. Instead of relying on imagery and graphics, it features several quotes and testimonials. 

It's designed to be direct, informative, and promotional. At some point, the case study reads more like a feature list. There were a few sections that felt a tad too promotional for my liking, but to each their own burrito.

Takeaway: Maintain a balance between promotional and informative. You want to showcase the high-level goals your product helped achieve without losing the reader.

9 . Hickies and Mailchimp

I've always been a fan of Mailchimp's comic-like branding, and this case study does an excellent job of sticking to their tradition of making information easy to understand, casual, and inviting.

It features a short video that briefly covers Hickies as a company and Mailchimp's efforts to serve its needs for customer relationships and education processes. Overall, this case study is a concise overview of the partnership that manages to convey success data and tell a story at the same time. What sets it apart is that it does so in a uniquely colorful and brand-consistent manner.

Takeaway: Be concise to provide as much value in as little text as possible.

10. NVIDIA and Workday

The gaming industry is notoriously difficult to recruit for, as it requires a very specific set of skills and experience. This case study focuses on how Workday was able to help fill that recruitment gap for NVIDIA, one of the biggest names in the gaming world.

Though it doesn't feature videos or graphics, this case study stood out to me in how it structures information like "key products used" to give readers insight into which tools helped achieve these results.

Takeaway: If your company offers multiple products or services, outline exactly which ones were involved in your case study, so readers can assess each tool.

11. KFC and Contentful

I'm personally not a big KFC fan, but that's only because I refuse to eat out of a bucket. My aversion to the bucket format aside, Contentful follows its consistent case study format in this one, outlining challenges, solutions, and outcomes before diving into the nitty-gritty details of the project.

Say what you will about KFC, but their primary product (chicken) does present a unique opportunity for wordplay like "Continuing to march to the beat of a digital-first drum(stick)" or "Delivering deep-fried goodness to every channel."

Takeaway: Inject humor into your case study if there's room for it and if it fits your brand. 

12. Intuit and Twilio

Twilio does an excellent job of delivering achievements at the very beginning of the case study and going into detail in this two-minute read. While there aren't many graphics, the way quotes from the Intuit team are implemented adds a certain flair to the study and breaks up the sections nicely.

It's simple, concise, and manages to fit a lot of information in easily digestible sections.

Takeaway: Make sure each section is long enough to inform but brief enough to avoid boring readers. Break down information for each section, and don't go into so much detail that you lose the reader halfway through.

13. Spotify and Salesforce

Salesforce created a video that accurately summarizes the key points of the case study. Beyond that, the page itself is very light on content, and sections are as short as one paragraph.

I especially like how information is broken down into "What you need to know," "Why it matters," and "What the difference looks like." I'm not ashamed of being spoon-fed information. When it's structured so well and so simply, it makes for an entertaining read.

Takeaway: Invest in videos that capture and promote your partnership with your case study subject. Video content plays a promotional role that extends beyond the case study in social media and marketing initiatives .

14. Benchling and Airtable

Benchling is an impressive entity in its own right. Biotech R&D and health care nuances go right over my head. But the research and digging I've been doing in the name of these burritos (case studies) revealed that these products are immensely complex. 

And that's precisely why this case study deserves a read—it succeeds at explaining a complex project that readers outside the industry wouldn't know much about.

Takeaway: Simplify complex information, and walk readers through the company's operations and how your business helped streamline them.

15. Chipotle and Hubble

The concision of this case study is refreshing. It features two sections—the challenge and the solution—all in 316 words. This goes to show that your case study doesn't necessarily need to be a four-figure investment with video shoots and studio time. 

Sometimes, the message is simple and short enough to convey in a handful of paragraphs.

Takeaway: Consider what you should include instead of what you can include. Assess the time, resources, and effort you're able and willing to invest in a case study, and choose which elements you want to include from there.

16. Hudl and Zapier

I may be biased, but I'm a big fan of seeing metrics and achievements represented in branded graphics. It can be a jarring experience to navigate a website, then visit a case study page and feel as though you've gone to a completely different website.

The Zapier format provides nuggets of high-level insights, milestones, and achievements, as well as the challenge, solution, and results. My favorite part of this case study is how it's supplemented with a blog post detailing how Hudl uses Zapier automation to build a seamless user experience.

The case study is essentially the summary, and the blog article is the detailed analysis that provides context beyond X achievement or Y goal.

Takeaway: Keep your case study concise and informative. Create other resources to provide context under your blog, media or press, and product pages.

3 case study templates

Now that you've had your fill of case studies (if that's possible), I've got just what you need: an infinite number of case studies, which you can create yourself with these case study templates.

Case study template 1

If you've got a quick hit of stats you want to show off, try this template. The opening section gives space for a short summary and three visually appealing stats you can highlight, followed by a headline and body where you can break the case study down more thoroughly. This one's pretty simple, with only sections for solutions and results, but you can easily continue the formatting to add more sections as needed.

Case study template 2

For a case study template with a little more detail, use this one. Opening with a striking cover page for a quick overview, this one goes on to include context, stakeholders, challenges, multiple quote callouts, and quick-hit stats. 

Case study template 3

Whether you want a little structural variation or just like a nice dark green, this template has similar components to the last template but is designed to help tell a story. Move from the client overview through a description of your company before getting to the details of how you fixed said company's problems.

Tips for writing a case study

Examples are all well and good, but you don't learn how to make a burrito just by watching tutorials on YouTube without knowing what any of the ingredients are. You could , but it probably wouldn't be all that good.

Writing a good case study comes down to a mix of creativity, branding, and the capacity to invest in the project. With those details in mind, here are some case study tips to follow:

Have an objective: Define your objective by identifying the challenge, solution, and results. Assess your work with the client and focus on the most prominent wins. You're speaking to multiple businesses and industries through the case study, so make sure you know what you want to say to them.

Focus on persuasive data: Growth percentages and measurable results are your best friends. Extract your most compelling data and highlight it in your case study.

Use eye-grabbing graphics: Branded design goes a long way in accurately representing your brand and retaining readers as they review the study. Leverage unique and eye-catching graphics to keep readers engaged. 

Simplify data presentation: Some industries are more complex than others, and sometimes, data can be difficult to understand at a glance. Make sure you present your data in the simplest way possible. Make it concise, informative, and easy to understand.

Use automation to drive results for your case study

A case study example is a source of inspiration you can leverage to determine how to best position your brand's work. Find your unique angle, and refine it over time to help your business stand out. Ask anyone: the best burrito in town doesn't just appear at the number one spot. They find their angle (usually the house sauce) and leverage it to stand out.

In fact, with the right technology, it can be refined to work better . Explore how Zapier's automation features can help drive results for your case study by making your case study a part of a developed workflow that creates a user journey through your website, your case studies, and into the pipeline.

Case study FAQ

Got your case study template? Great—it's time to gather the team for an awkward semi-vague data collection task. While you do that, here are some case study quick answers for you to skim through while you contemplate what to call your team meeting.

What is an example of a case study?

An example of a case study is when a software company analyzes its results from a client project and creates a webpage, presentation, or document that focuses on high-level results, challenges, and solutions in an attempt to showcase effectiveness and promote the software.

How do you write a case study?

To write a good case study, you should have an objective, identify persuasive and compelling data, leverage graphics, and simplify data. Case studies typically include an analysis of the challenge, solution, and results of the partnership.

What is the format of a case study?

While case studies don't have a set format, they're often portrayed as reports or essays that inform readers about the partnership and its results. 

Related reading:

How Hudl uses automation to create a seamless user experience

How to make your case studies high-stakes—and why it matters

How experts write case studies that convert, not bore

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Hachem Ramki

Hachem is a writer and digital marketer from Montreal. After graduating with a degree in English, Hachem spent seven years traveling around the world before moving to Canada. When he's not writing, he enjoys Basketball, Dungeons and Dragons, and playing music for friends and family.

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15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

By Alice Corner , Jan 12, 2023

Have you ever bought something — within the last 10 years or so — without reading its reviews or without a recommendation or prior experience of using it?

If the answer is no — or at least, rarely — you get my point.

Positive reviews matter for selling to regular customers, and for B2B or SaaS businesses, detailed case studies are important too.

Wondering how to craft a compelling case study ? No worries—I’ve got you covered with 15 marketing case study templates , helpful tips, and examples to ensure your case study converts effectively.

Click to jump ahead:

• What is a Case Study?

Business Case Study Examples

Simple case study examples.

• Marketing Case Study Examples

Sales Case Study Examples

• Case Study FAQs

What is a case study?

A case study is an in-depth, detailed analysis of a specific real-world situation. For example, a case study can be about an individual, group, event, organization, or phenomenon. The purpose of a case study is to understand its complexities and gain insights into a particular instance or situation.

In the context of a business, however, case studies take customer success stories and explore how they use your product to help them achieve their business goals.

As well as being valuable marketing tools , case studies are a good way to evaluate your product as it allows you to objectively examine how others are using it.

It’s also a good way to interview your customers about why they work with you.

Related: What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

Marketing Case Study Template

A marketing case study showcases how your product or services helped potential clients achieve their business goals. You can also create case studies of internal, successful marketing projects. A marketing case study typically includes:

• Company background and history
• The challenge
• How you helped
• Specific actions taken
• Visuals or Data
• Client testimonials

Here’s an example of a marketing case study template:

Whether you’re a B2B or B2C company, business case studies can be a powerful resource to help with your sales, marketing, and even internal departmental awareness.

Business and business management case studies should encompass strategic insights alongside anecdotal and qualitative findings, like in the business case study examples below.

Conduct a B2B case study by researching the company holistically

When it comes to writing a case study, make sure you approach the company holistically and analyze everything from their social media to their sales.

Think about every avenue your product or service has been of use to your case study company, and ask them about the impact this has had on their wider company goals.

In business case study examples like the one above, we can see that the company has been thought about holistically simply by the use of icons.

By combining social media icons with icons that show in-person communication we know that this is a well-researched and thorough case study.

This case study report example could also be used within an annual or end-of-year report.

Highlight the key takeaway from your marketing case study

To create a compelling case study, identify the key takeaways from your research. Use catchy language to sum up this information in a sentence, and present this sentence at the top of your page.

This is “at a glance” information and it allows people to gain a top-level understanding of the content immediately. 

You can use a large, bold, contrasting font to help this information stand out from the page and provide interest.

Learn  how to choose fonts  effectively with our Venngage guide and once you’ve done that.

Upload your fonts and  brand colors  to Venngage using the  My Brand Kit  tool and see them automatically applied to your designs.

The heading is the ideal place to put the most impactful information, as this is the first thing that people will read.

In this example, the stat of “Increase[d] lead quality by 90%” is used as the header. It makes customers want to read more to find out how exactly lead quality was increased by such a massive amount.

If you’re conducting an in-person interview, you could highlight a direct quote or insight provided by your interview subject.

Pick out a catchy sentence or phrase, or the key piece of information your interview subject provided and use that as a way to draw a potential customer in.

Use charts to visualize data in your business case studies

Charts are an excellent way to visualize data and to bring statistics and information to life. Charts make information easier to understand and to illustrate trends or patterns.

Making charts is even easier with Venngage.

In this consulting case study example, we can see that a chart has been used to demonstrate the difference in lead value within the Lead Elves case study.

Adding a chart here helps break up the information and add visual value to the case study. 

Using charts in your case study can also be useful if you’re creating a project management case study.

You could use a Gantt chart or a project timeline to show how you have managed the project successfully.

Use direct quotes to build trust in your marketing case study

To add an extra layer of authenticity you can include a direct quote from your customer within your case study.

According to research from Nielsen , 92% of people will trust a recommendation from a peer and 70% trust recommendations even if they’re from somebody they don’t know.

So if you have a customer or client who can’t stop singing your praises, make sure you get a direct quote from them and include it in your case study.

You can either lift part of the conversation or interview, or you can specifically request a quote. Make sure to ask for permission before using the quote.

This design uses a bright contrasting speech bubble to show that it includes a direct quote, and helps the quote stand out from the rest of the text.

This will help draw the customer’s attention directly to the quote, in turn influencing them to use your product or service.

Less is often more, and this is especially true when it comes to creating designs. Whilst you want to create a professional-looking, well-written and design case study – there’s no need to overcomplicate things.

These simple case study examples show that smart clean designs and informative content can be an effective way to showcase your successes.

Use colors and fonts to create a professional-looking case study

Business case studies shouldn’t be boring. In fact, they should be beautifully and professionally designed.

This means the normal rules of design apply. Use fonts, colors, and icons to create an interesting and visually appealing case study.

In this case study example, we can see how multiple fonts have been used to help differentiate between the headers and content, as well as complementary colors and eye-catching icons.

Marketing case study examples

Marketing case studies are incredibly useful for showing your marketing successes. Every successful marketing campaign relies on influencing a consumer’s behavior, and a great case study can be a great way to spotlight your biggest wins.

In the marketing case study examples below, a variety of designs and techniques to create impactful and effective case studies.

Show off impressive results with a bold marketing case study

Case studies are meant to show off your successes, so make sure you feature your positive results prominently. Using bold and bright colors as well as contrasting shapes, large bold fonts, and simple icons is a great way to highlight your wins.

In well-written case study examples like the one below, the big wins are highlighted on the second page with a bright orange color and are highlighted in circles.

Making the important data stand out is especially important when attracting a prospective customer with marketing case studies.

Use a simple but clear layout in your case study

Using a simple layout in your case study can be incredibly effective, like in the example of a case study below.

Keeping a clean white background, and using slim lines to help separate the sections is an easy way to format your case study.

Making the information clear helps draw attention to the important results, and it helps improve the  accessibility of the design .

Business case study examples like this would sit nicely within a larger report, with a consistent layout throughout.

Use visuals and icons to create an engaging and branded business case study

Nobody wants to read pages and pages of text — and that’s why Venngage wants to help you communicate your ideas visually.

Using icons, graphics, photos, or patterns helps create a much more engaging design. 

With this Blue Cap case study icons, colors, and impactful pattern designs have been used to create an engaging design that catches your eye.

Use a monochromatic color palette to create a professional and clean case study

Let your research shine by using a monochromatic and minimalistic color palette.

By sticking to one color, and leaving lots of blank space you can ensure your design doesn’t distract a potential customer from your case study content.

In this case study on Polygon Media, the design is simple and professional, and the layout allows the prospective customer to follow the flow of information.

The gradient effect on the left-hand column helps break up the white background and adds an interesting visual effect.

Did you know you can generate an accessible color palette with Venngage? Try our free accessible color palette generator today and create a case study that delivers and looks pleasant to the eye:

Add long term goals in your case study

When creating a case study it’s a great idea to look at both the short term and the long term goals of the company to gain the best understanding possible of the insights they provide.

Short-term goals will be what the company or person hopes to achieve in the next few months, and long-term goals are what the company hopes to achieve in the next few years.

Check out this modern pattern design example of a case study below:

In this case study example, the short and long-term goals are clearly distinguished by light blue boxes and placed side by side so that they are easy to compare.

Use a strong introductory paragraph to outline the overall strategy and goals before outlining the specific short-term and long-term goals to help with clarity.

This strategy can also be handy when creating a consulting case study.

Use data to make concrete points about your sales and successes

When conducting any sort of research stats, facts, and figures are like gold dust (aka, really valuable).

Being able to quantify your findings is important to help understand the information fully. Saying sales increased 10% is much more effective than saying sales increased.

While sales dashboards generally tend it make it all about the numbers and charts, in sales case study examples, like this one, the key data and findings can be presented with icons. This contributes to the potential customer’s better understanding of the report.

They can clearly comprehend the information and it shows that the case study has been well researched.

Use emotive, persuasive, or action based language in your marketing case study

Create a compelling case study by using emotive, persuasive and action-based language when customizing your case study template.

In this well-written case study example, we can see that phrases such as “Results that Speak Volumes” and “Drive Sales” have been used.

Using persuasive language like you would in a blog post. It helps inspire potential customers to take action now.

Keep your potential customers in mind when creating a customer case study for marketing

82% of marketers use case studies in their marketing  because it’s such an effective tool to help quickly gain customers’ trust and to showcase the potential of your product.

Why are case studies such an important tool in content marketing?

By writing a case study you’re telling potential customers that they can trust you because you’re showing them that other people do.

Not only that, but if you have a SaaS product, business case studies are a great way to show how other people are effectively using your product in their company.

In this case study, Network is demonstrating how their product has been used by Vortex Co. with great success; instantly showing other potential customers that their tool works and is worth using.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Case studies are particularly effective as a sales technique.

A sales case study is like an extended customer testimonial, not only sharing opinions of your product – but showcasing the results you helped your customer achieve.

Make impactful statistics pop in your sales case study

Writing a case study doesn’t mean using text as the only medium for sharing results.

You should use icons to highlight areas of your research that are particularly interesting or relevant, like in this example of a case study:

Icons are a great way to help summarize information quickly and can act as visual cues to help draw the customer’s attention to certain areas of the page.

In some of the business case study examples above, icons are used to represent the impressive areas of growth and are presented in a way that grabs your attention.

Use high contrast shapes and colors to draw attention to key information in your sales case study

Help the key information stand out within your case study by using high contrast shapes and colors.

Use a complementary or contrasting color, or use a shape such as a rectangle or a circle for maximum impact.

This design has used dark blue rectangles to help separate the information and make it easier to read.

Coupled with icons and strong statistics, this information stands out on the page and is easily digestible and retainable for a potential customer.

Case Study Examples Summary

Once you have created your case study, it’s best practice to update your examples on a regular basis to include up-to-date statistics, data, and information.

You should update your business case study examples often if you are sharing them on your website .

It’s also important that your case study sits within your brand guidelines – find out how Venngage’s My Brand Kit tool can help you create consistently branded case study templates.

Case studies are important marketing tools – but they shouldn’t be the only tool in your toolbox. Content marketing is also a valuable way to earn consumer trust.

Case Study FAQ

Why should you write a case study.

Case studies are an effective marketing technique to engage potential customers and help build trust.

By producing case studies featuring your current clients or customers, you are showcasing how your tool or product can be used. You’re also showing that other people endorse your product.

In addition to being a good way to gather positive testimonials from existing customers , business case studies are good educational resources and can be shared amongst your company or team, and used as a reference for future projects.

How should you write a case study?

To create a great case study, you should think strategically. The first step, before starting your case study research, is to think about what you aim to learn or what you aim to prove.

You might be aiming to learn how a company makes sales or develops a new product. If this is the case, base your questions around this.

You can learn more about writing a case study  from our extensive guide.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

Some good questions you could ask would be:

• Why do you use our tool or service?
• How often do you use our tool or service?
• What does the process of using our product look like to you?
• If our product didn’t exist, what would you be doing instead?
• What is the number one benefit you’ve found from using our tool?

You might also enjoy:

• 12 Essential Consulting Templates For Marketing, Planning and Branding
• Best Marketing Strategies for Consultants and Freelancers in 2019 [Study + Infographic]

• Study protocol
• Open access
• Published: 20 August 2013

A mixed methods multiple case study of implementation as usual in children’s social service organizations: study protocol

• Byron J Powell 1 ,
• Enola K Proctor 1 ,
• Charles A Glisson 2 ,
• Patricia L Kohl 1 ,
• Ramesh Raghavan 1 , 3 ,
• Ross C Brownson 1 , 4 ,
• Bradley P Stoner 5 , 6 ,
• Christopher R Carpenter 7 &
• Lawrence A Palinkas 8  

Implementation Science volume  8 , Article number:  92 ( 2013 ) Cite this article

24k Accesses

30 Citations

Metrics details

Improving quality in children’s mental health and social service settings will require implementation strategies capable of moving effective treatments and other innovations ( e.g ., assessment tools) into routine care. It is likely that efforts to identify, develop, and refine implementation strategies will be more successful if they are informed by relevant stakeholders and are responsive to the strengths and limitations of the contexts and implementation processes identified in usual care settings. This study will describe: the types of implementation strategies used; how organizational leaders make decisions about what to implement and how to approach the implementation process; organizational stakeholders’ perceptions of different implementation strategies; and the potential influence of organizational culture and climate on implementation strategy selection, implementation decision-making, and stakeholders’ perceptions of implementation strategies.

Methods/design

This study is a mixed methods multiple case study of seven children’s social service organizations in one Midwestern city in the United States that compose the control group of a larger randomized controlled trial. Qualitative data will include semi-structured interviews with organizational leaders ( e.g ., CEOs/directors, clinical directors, program managers) and a review of documents ( e.g ., implementation and quality improvement plans, program manuals, etc.) that will shed light on implementation decision-making and specific implementation strategies that are used to implement new programs and practices. Additionally, focus groups with clinicians will explore their perceptions of a range of implementation strategies. This qualitative work will inform the development of a Web-based survey that will assess the perceived effectiveness, relative importance, acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness of implementation strategies from the perspective of both clinicians and organizational leaders. Finally, the Organizational Social Context measure will be used to assess organizational culture and climate. Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods data will be analyzed and interpreted at the case level as well as across cases in order to highlight meaningful similarities, differences, and site-specific experiences.

This study is designed to inform efforts to develop more effective implementation strategies by fully describing the implementation experiences of a sample of community-based organizations that provide mental health services to youth in one Midwestern city.

Peer Review reports

Children in the U.S. continue to receive substandard mental health and child welfare services [ 1 – 4 ], partly because we do not understand how to effectively integrate evidence-based treatments (EBTs) into ‘real world’ service settings. Evidence-based treatments are seldom implemented, and when they are, problems with implementation can severely diminish their impact [ 5 ]. To improve the quality of care for children, EBTs will need to be complemented by evidence-based approaches to implementation [ 6 ]. Thus, the National Institutes of Health and the Institute of Medicine have prioritized efforts to identify, develop, refine, and test implementation strategies [ 7 , 8 ], which are defined as ‘systematic intervention processes to adopt and integrate evidence-based health innovations into usual care’ [ 9 ].

State of the evidence for implementation strategies

While the health and mental health literatures describe many potentially promising implementation strategies [ 9 ], the evidence of their effectiveness remains imperfect [ 10 – 13 ]. Most strategies deliver only modest effect sizes [ 10 ], and are effective under some, but not all, conditions [ 14 ]. Passive strategies, such as disseminating educational materials and continuing education courses, may be useful in increasing knowledge, but are generally not sufficient to change provider behavior [ 15 – 18 ]. Training approaches that incorporate ongoing supervision and consultation can lead to therapist behavior change [ 15 , 18 ], but it is increasingly recognized that strategies need to move beyond focusing solely on provider level factors such as knowledge and expertise [ 19 – 21 ]. Indeed, implementing EBTs with fidelity does not always improve outcomes [ 22 ], suggesting that other barriers to quality service provision must also be addressed [ 23 ]. Implementation is a complex, multi-level process, and existing theoretical and empirical work suggests that ‘best practices’ in implementation would involve the planned use of multiple strategies to address barriers to change that can emerge at all levels of the implementation context [ 9 , 20 , 21 , 24 – 28 ]. There are a number of strategies that extend beyond the provider level [ 9 ]; however, in social services research, there are very few randomized studies that test the effectiveness of multi-level implementation strategies (for one exception, see [ 23 ]). More research is needed to develop effective ways of tailoring strategies to target implementation barriers [ 29 ] and to develop innovative strategies that are efficient, cost-effective, and robust or readily adaptable [ 30 ].

The need for a better understanding of implementation as usual

Implementation scientists cannot develop these strategies ‘in a vacuum’ [ 31 ]; they must possess a thorough understanding of the service systems and organizational contexts in which these strategies will (hopefully) be adopted [ 32 ]. Hoagwood and Kolko warn that ‘it is difficult and perhaps foolhardy to try to improve what you don’t understand’ [ 31 ], and note that program implementers and services researchers are often unable to anticipate implementation challenges largely because the context of service delivery has not been adequately described. In other words, there is a need for a better understanding of usual care settings, and in particular, what constitutes ‘implementation as usual’.

Garland et al. acknowledge that ‘studies that “simply” characterize existing practice may not be perceived as innovative or exciting compared to studies that test new innovations’ [ 33 ]. However, these studies are ‘a necessary complement – if not precursor’ – to studies that will strengthen knowledge on the implementation of EBTs [ 31 ]. Indeed, an increased understanding of implementation as usual has the potential to identify leverage points for implementation, specify targets for improvement, and generate useful insights into the types of implementation processes that are likely to be successful in the real world.

At present, very little is known about the implementation processes that occur in usual care [ 31 , 33 , 34 ]. This highlights the need for descriptive studies that define the range and context of current implementation processes in relation to what is known about ‘best implementation practice’ [ 35 ], which (for the purpose of this study) is characterized as the planned use of multiple strategies to address barriers to change at various levels [ 20 , 26 , 28 , 36 ]. The current study addresses this need by leveraging a control group of a larger implementation trial that is not receiving an active implementation intervention. Using control groups to examine implementation as usual may yield critical information that can be used to improve the development of implementation strategies. This approach maximizes the use of research funding, illuminates implementation processes within control conditions that may be helpful in understanding the results of larger trials, and ultimately, avoids treating control conditions as ‘black boxes’ that are assumed to have no ‘action’ related to treatment and implementation decisions and processes. The last point constitutes a considerable advantage over studies that focus solely on outcomes obtained by control groups thought to represent ‘usual care’ without generating rich descriptions of what actually occurs in these settings. This study will describe four elements of these organizations that may play a role in determining implementation, service system, and clinical outcomes [ 37 ]: patterns of implementation strategy use, implementation decision-making, perceptions of implementation strategies, and organizational social context.

Implementation strategy patterns

There is a paucity of descriptive data pertaining to basic contextual elements of implementation such as organizational operations, staffing patterns, and electronic technologies for tracking service visits in usual care settings [ 31 ]. Even less is known about implementation strategy patterns in children’s social service organizations. One exception is Schoenwald and colleagues’ examination of organizations’ use of training, supervision and evaluation [ 34 ]. Encouragingly, they found that training and supervisory practices were more or less ‘in line’ with the typical procedures in an effectiveness trial. However, there has yet to be a study that maps a fuller range of potential implementation strategies that extends beyond commonly used strategies such as training and supervision [ 9 ]. Thus, very little is known about the types of strategies employed, the frequency and intensity at which they are used, and the conceptual domains and levels of the implementation context that they target.

Organizational decision-making related to implementation processes

Organizational leaders face tremendous challenges when it comes to determining which treatments will be implemented in their settings and how they will be implemented. As Ferlie notes, ‘implementation process is often emergent, uncertain, and affected by the local context and features of action’ [ 38 ]. It would be ideal if organizational leaders would base their decisions upon the latest theoretical and empirical findings; however, little is written about how organizational leaders approach implementation decision-making. In particular, we need to know more about whether and how organizational leaders use research related to management and implementation, and the conditions under which they may be more likely to use research [ 38 ]. Furthermore, there is a need for more insight into the types ( e.g ., summaries of implementation barriers and facilitators, reviews of implementation strategies), formats ( e.g ., statistical or narrative summaries), and sources ( e.g ., academics, peers from other organizations) of information that organizational leaders find most valuable when making decisions about how to implement EBTs. This will highlight the ways in which implementation research could be made more accessible to organizational leaders, and could inform the development of decision aids that could facilitate the identification, selection, and tailoring of implementation strategies.

Stakeholders’ perceptions of the characteristics of implementation strategies

The characteristics of interventions may play a large role in determining whether or not they are adopted and sustained in the real world [ 26 , 39 , 40 ]. Rogers’ diffusion of innovations theory suggests that innovative treatment models will not likely be adopted unless they are: superior to treatment as usual; compatible with agency practices; no more complex than existing services; easy to try (and reject if it fails); and likely to produce tangible results recognizable by authorities [ 40 , 41 ]. Other potentially influential characteristics of interventions specified in theoretical models include the intervention source ( i.e ., the legitimacy of the source and whether it was internally or externally developed), evidence strength and quality, adaptability, design quality and packaging, and costs [ 26 ]. While these characteristics are often considered in relation to clinical interventions, they also readily apply to implementation strategies. In fact, a better understanding of stakeholders’ perceptions of implementation strategies may facilitate the process of identifying, developing, and selecting strategies that will be feasible and effective in the real world.

Influence of organizational culture and climate on implementation processes

The conceptual and empirical literatures have underscored the importance of organizational factors such as culture and climate in facilitating or impeding the uptake of innovations [ 24 , 26 , 42 – 44 ]. ‘Organizational culture’ is what makes an organization unique from others, including its core values and its organizational history of adapting with successes and failures [ 42 ]. It involves not only values and patterns related to products and services, but also how individuals within an organization treat and interact with one another [ 42 ]. Glisson and colleagues write, ‘Culture describes how the work is done in the organization and is measured as the behavioral expectations reported by members of the organization. These expectations guide the way work is approached and socialize new employees in the priorities of the organization’ [ 43 ]. Thus, culture is passed on to new employees and is conceptualized as a rather stable construct that is difficult to change. ‘Organizational climate’ is formed when employees have shared perceptions of the psychological impact of their work environment on their own well-being and functioning in the organization [ 43 ].

More constructive or positive organizational cultures and climates are associated with more positive staff morale [ 45 ], reduced staff turnover [ 46 ], increased access to mental health care [ 47 ], improved service quality and outcomes [ 45 , 48 , 49 ], greater sustainability of new programs [ 46 ], and more positive attitudes toward EBTs [ 50 ]. Yet, it is less clear how culture and climate relate to implementation processes. Knowing more about this relationship would inform efforts to facilitate organizational change. For example, it may be that organizations with poor cultures and climates require more intensive implementation support in order to develop well-coordinated implementation plans that address relevant determinants of practice [ 51 ].

This mixed methods multiple case study addresses these gaps in knowledge related to implementation contexts and processes in children’s social service organizations through the following aims:

Aim 1: To identify and characterize the implementation strategies used in community-based children’s social service settings;

Aim 2: To explore how organizational leaders make decisions about which treatments and programs to implement and how to implement them;

Aim 3: To assess stakeholders’ (organizational leaders’ and clinicians’) perceptions of the effectiveness, relative importance, acceptability, feasibility and appropriateness of implementation strategies; and

Aim 4: To examine the relationship between organizational context (culture and climate) and implementation strategy selection, implementation decision-making, and perceptions of implementation strategies.

Aim 1 will rely upon semi-structured interviews with organizational leaders (management and clinical directors) and document review to yield rich descriptions of the implementation strategies employed by seven agencies. This data will be compared to ‘best practices’ in implementation derived from existing theoretical and empirical work [ 11 , 13 , 15 , 18 , 36 ] to inform future work developing strategies in areas that are currently poorly addressed. It will also allow researchers and administrators to build upon ‘practice-based evidence’ and the strengths of ‘positive deviants’ ( i.e ., organizations that are consistently effective in implementing change despite a myriad of implementation barriers) [ 52 , 53 ].

Aim 2 will also use semi-structured interviews with organizational leaders and document review to generate new knowledge about how agency leaders use evidence and other sources of information to make decisions about implementation. Learning more about the type of information that organizational leaders seek, the sources they look to for that information, and the conditions under which they seek that information, may inform future work to make implementation science findings more accessible and ensure that implementation decision-making is based upon the best available theoretical and empirical knowledge in the field.

Aim 3 will utilize focus groups and an online survey to ensure that future work to develop and test implementation strategies will be informed by stakeholders’ (organizational leaders’ and clinicians’) perceptions about the types of strategies that are likely to be effective in the real world.

Aim 4 will examine how organizational social context (culture and climate) facilitates or hinders implementation by linking the data about strategy selection, implementation decision-making, and stakeholders’ perceptions of implementation strategies to organizations’ scores on a standardized measure of culture and climate [ 43 ].

Guiding conceptual frameworks

The proposed study is informed by two conceptual frameworks: the consolidated framework for implementation research CFIR [ 26 ] and Grol and Wensing’s implementation of change model [ 36 ]. These models will be integrated in all stages of the research process, including conceptualization ( e.g ., selecting implementation processes on which to focus), data collection ( e.g ., using components of the conceptual models as interview questions and probes), analysis ( e.g ., determining how comprehensively organizations are addressing constructs essential to implementation success, comparing ‘implementation as usual’ to ‘best practices’), and dissemination ( e.g ., framing findings conceptually so that they will be comparable to other implementation studies).

The CFIR was developed for the purpose of serving as a common reference to the many constructs that have been identified as important to implementation success [ 26 ]. It identifies five major domains related to implementation, including: intervention characteristics, the outer setting, the inner setting, the characteristics of the individuals involved, and the process of implementation. Detailed definitions of the 39 constructs included in the CFIR can be found in the supplementary materials associated with that article [ 26 ]. It captures the complex, multi-level nature of implementation, and suggests that successful implementation may necessitate the use of an array of strategies that target multiple levels of the implementation context [ 9 ]. The CFIR has informed the semi-structured interview guide (see Additional file 1 ) by specifying specific probes for eliciting descriptions of implementation strategies across various ‘levels’. It will also be used to assess the comprehensiveness of organizations’ approaches to implementation. For example, an organization that focuses only on the ‘characteristics of individuals’ while neglecting other domains such as ‘intervention characteristics’ or the ‘inner setting’ would have a less comprehensive approach to implementation than an organization that addresses all three (or more) of those domains.

Grol and Wensing’s implementation of change model informs this research by specifying a process of implementation that begins with identifying problems or gaps in care, identifying ESTs or other best-practices, carefully planning the implementation effort, developing a proposal with targets for improvement or change, analyzing current performance, developing implementation strategies, executing the implementation plan, and continuously evaluating and (if necessary) adapting the plan [ 36 ]. The model provides a structure and a process to implementation that the CFIR lacks. It also emphasizes an important aspect of implementation ‘best practice, ’ namely, that while implementation processes may be complex, necessitating iterative and flexible approaches [ 54 , 55 ], they should be planned and deliberate rather than haphazard. The implementation of change model has also informed the development of the interview guide informing Aims 1 and 2.

This study employs a mixed methods multiple case study design, in which each participating organization (n = 7) is conceptualized as a ‘case’ [ 56 , 57 ]. Case studies are particularly helpful in understanding the internal dynamics of change processes, and including multiple cases capitalizes on organizational variation and permits an examination of how contextual factors influence implementation [ 58 ]. Leaders in the field have emphasized the importance of using case study and other mixed methods observational designs to develop a more nuanced, theoretically informed understanding of change processes [ 59 – 64 ]. The study relies upon the ‘sequential collection and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data, beginning with qualitative data, for the primary purpose of exploration and hypothesis generation, ’ or a QUAL → quan approach [ 64 ]. This serves the primary function of ‘development, ’ as collecting qualitative data in Aims 1 to 3 affords the opportunity to examine the impact of organizational context in Aim 4 [ 64 ]. It serves the secondary function of ‘convergence’ by using quantitative and qualitative data to answer the same questions in Aim 3 [ 64 ].

The study will be conducted in the control arm of a U.S. National Institute of Mental Health funded randomized controlled trial (RCT) [ 65 ] of the Availability, Responsiveness, and Continuity (ARC) organizational implementation strategy [ 23 , 49 , 66 ], which affords a unique opportunity to study implementation as usual. The sample includes seven children’s social service organizations in a Midwestern city that reflect the characteristics of children’s mental health service providers nationwide [ 34 ] in that they are characterized by nonprofit organizational structures, they employ therapists that have master’s and bachelor’s degrees, and are comprised of a predominantly social work staff.

All participating organizations may not be currently implementing EBTs; however, they will likely be able to discuss strategies they have used to implement other clinical programs, services, or treatment models [ 46 ]. Thus, we will maintain an inclusive stance toward the types of programs and practices that organizations are implementing. This is warranted given that the primary scientific objective is to learn more about the processes and contexts of implementation rather than the particulars of implementing a specific EBT or class of EBTs.

While sampling logic should not be used in multiple case study research [ 57 , 67 ], seven cases are expected to be enough to ‘replicate’ findings across cases [ 57 ]. Yin writes that each ‘case’ (organization) is in essence treated as a separate study that either predicts similar results (literal replication) or predicts contrasting results but for anticipatable reasons (theoretical replication) [ 57 ]. In the present study, organizations with the worst cultures and climates may be expected to demonstrate similar implementation processes and perceptions of strategies ( i.e ., literal replication), whereas organizations with more positive cultures and climates may embrace a much different set of implementation processes and perceptions of strategies ( i.e ., theoretical replication).

Data collection

The proposed study will rely upon qualitative data from semi-structured interviews (Aims 1, 2, and 4), document review (Aims 1, 2, and 4), and focus groups (Aim 3). Additionally, quantitative data from a project-specific survey being developed (described below) and the Organizational Social Context (OSC) measure [ 43 ] will be used to accomplish Aims 3 and 4 respectively (see Table  1 ).

Qualitative data collection

Semi-structured interviews.

Semi-structured interviews will be conducted with organizational leaders ( e.g ., management and clinical supervisors) from each participating organization. The interviews will explore the implementation strategies their agencies have employed within the past year (Aim 1) and their approach to implementation decision-making (Aim 2). Interviews will be conducted by the lead author and will be structured by an interview guide (Additional file 1 ) informed by a review of implementation strategies [ 9 ] and the guiding conceptual models [ 26 , 36 ]. Specifically, the interview guide contains questions and prompts that will encourage participants to consider the implementation strategies that their organization has employed at multiple levels of the implementation context as specified by the CFIR [ 26 ] and the Powell et al. taxonomy [ 9 ] ( e.g ., asking if their organization used strategies related to the intervention, the policy or inter-organizational level, and the organization’s structure and functioning in addition to more commonly considered individual-level and process-level strategies). Through the process of snowball sampling [ 68 ], each participant will be asked to identify other employees who possess the requisite knowledge and experience to inform the study’s objectives. It is estimated that each organization will identify between three and five key informants, resulting in approximately 21 to 35 total interviews. Many agencies may not have more than this number of individuals who have direct knowledge of the use of implementation strategies [ 69 ], and more importantly, the decision-making processes surrounding implementation.

Guest and colleagues emphasize that very small samples can yield complete and accurate information as long as the respondents have the appropriate amount of expertise in the domain of inquiry [ 70 ]. Further, a main benefit of the multiple case study design is obtaining different sources of information that will be used to triangulate the interview data [ 57 , 64 ]. Interviews will last 60 to 90 minutes and will be digitally recorded. Immediately following each interview, the interviewer will complete field notes that will capture the main themes of the interview and any information that is pertinent to the study aims [ 71 , 72 ]. Interviews and field notes will be transcribed, and entered into NVivo, version 10, for data analysis.

Document review

The study will also involve a review of publically available and organization-provided documents. Organizational leaders will be asked to provide access to any documents that describe and formalize implementation processes. For example, these processes may be captured in notes from a board meeting in which the implementation of a new program or practice was discussed, or in an organization’s response to a request for proposals that seeks funding for a particular training or implementation related resource. Other documents may include (but are certainly not limited to) formal implementation or quality improvement plans, annual reports, and program manuals. These sources will serve to augment or triangulate interview respondents’ descriptions of implementation strategies and decision-making processes. With permission from the organizations, potentially useful documents will be obtained and entered into NVivo, version 10, for analysis.

Focus groups interviews

Focus groups involving approximately four to eight clinicians (or direct care staff members) will be conducted in each participating organization to capture the depth and nuances of their perceptions of strategies. The number of participants per focus group is consistent with Barbour’s recommendation of a minimum of three or four participants and a maximum of eight [ 73 ]. The number of focus groups (one per agency) is appropriate because the relatively homogenous population ( e.g ., clinicians at a given agency) and the structured and somewhat narrow scope of inquiry reduces the number of individuals needed to reach saturation [ 70 ]. Further, the quantitative data will serve to triangulate the focus group data [ 57 , 64 ], reducing the need for a larger sample size. The focus groups will be conducted by the first author and a research assistant. The interview will be guided by a structured interview guide (Additional file 2 ) informed by a conceptual taxonomy of implementation outcomes [ 74 ]. Participants will be asked to discuss the implementation strategies that they have used at their organization, and the facilitator(s) will record each strategy mentioned on a whiteboard so that all participants can see the running list. Additional strategies drawn from the literature may be listed if the participants focus on a relatively narrow range of strategies. Participants will then be asked to reflect upon the effectiveness, acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness of the listed strategies. Although the primary purpose of the focus group interviews is to assess participants’ perceptions of various implementation strategies, it is also possible that these individuals will provide information about implementation strategies used at their organization that were not captured in the semi-structured interviews with organizational leaders.

Each focus group will last approximately 60 to 90 minutes and will be digitally recorded. As with the individual interviews, the interviewer will complete field notes following the focus groups that will document the main themes of the session and any observations pertinent to the study aims. The interviews and the field notes will be transcribed and entered into NVivo, version 10, for analysis.

Quantitative survey data

Survey of stakeholders’ perceptions of implementation strategies.

A project-specific self-administered web-based survey will be developed to assess stakeholders’ perceptions and experiences with specific implementation strategies. The implementation strategies included in the survey will be generated from the qualitative work in Aims 1, 2, and 3 and a published ‘menu’ that describes 68 distinct implementation strategies [ 9 ]. In order to ensure a relatively low burden to respondents, it is unlikely that more than 40 strategies will be included. Decisions about the inclusion of strategies will be driven by the qualitative analysis ( i.e ., using the strategies mentioned by organizational leaders and clinicians), while attempts will be made to include strategies that address a number of different targets as specified in the CFIR [ 26 ].

It should also be noted that the Powell and colleagues’ compilation includes a number of strategies that could not be reasonably adopted by the participants of this study ( e.g ., ‘centralize technical assistance’) [ 9 ], and those strategies will be eliminated. The survey will also be informed by a conceptual taxonomy of implementation outcomes [ 74 ] and other existing surveys drawn from implementation science measures collections [ 75 , 76 ]. In addition to basic demographic questions, stakeholders will be asked whether or not they have experienced each included implementation strategy (yes or no) and will then rate each strategy (using a Likert-style scale) on the following dimensions: ‘effectiveness’ and ‘relative importance’ ( i.e ., How well did it work and how important was it relative to other strategies?), ‘acceptability’ ( i.e ., How agreeable, palatable, or satisfactory is the strategy?), ‘feasibility’ ( i.e. , the perception that the strategy has been or could be successfully used within a given setting), and ‘appropriateness’ ( i.e ., the perceived fit, relevance, or compatibility of the strategy with the setting). This survey will be administered via an email with a link to the online survey, and will be pilot tested to ensure face-validity and ease of use.

Organizational social context (OSC) survey

The OSC is a standardized measure that assesses organizational culture, climate, and work attitudes (the latter of which is not being used for the current study) using 105 Likert-style items [ 43 ]. Culture is assessed in terms of an organization’s level of ‘rigidity’ (centralization, formalization), ‘proficiency’ (responsiveness, competence), and ‘resistance’ (apathy, suppression). The ‘best’ organizational cultures are highly proficient and not very rigid or resistant, while the ‘worst’ cultures are not very proficient and are highly rigid and resistant to change or new ideas. Climate is assessed with three second-order factors: ‘engagement’ (personalization, personal accomplishment), ‘functionality’ (growth and achievement, role clarity, cooperation), and ‘stress’ [ 43 ]. The ‘best’ organizational climates are described as being highly engaged, highly functional, and low in stress [ 43 ]. Cronbach’s alphas for the OSC subscales (rigidity, proficiency, resistance, stress, engagement, functionality) range from 0.78 to 0.94. The OSC will be administered on site, and a research assistant will assure respondents that their responses will remain confidential.

Data analysis

Qualitative data analysis.

Qualitative data from semi-structured interviews, document review, and focus groups will be imported and analyzed (separately) in NVivo using qualitative content analysis [ 77 – 80 ], which has been used successfully in similar studies [ 81 – 83 ]. Content analysis enables a theory driven approach, and an examination of both manifest ( i.e ., the actual words used) and latent ( i.e ., the underlying meaning of the words) content [ 72 ]. Accordingly, analysis will be informed by the guiding conceptual models, with additional patterns, themes, and categories being allowed to emerge from the data [ 72 , 84 ]. The first author and a doctoral student research assistant will independently co-code a sample of the transcripts to increase reliability and reduce bias [ 72 , 85 ]. Both coders will participate in a frame-of-reference training to ensure a common understanding of the core concepts related to the research aims [ 82 ]. Disagreements will be discussed and resolved through consensus. Initially, the coders will review the transcripts to develop a general understanding of the content. ‘Memos’ will be generated to document initial impressions and define the parameters of specific codes. Next, the data will be condensed into analyzable units (text segments), which will be labelled with codes based on a priori ( i.e ., derived from the interview guide or guiding theories) or emergent themes that will be continually refined and compared to each other. For instance, the implementation of change model [ 36 ] will be used to develop a priori codes such as ‘identifying programs and practices’ or ‘planning’ related to implementation decision-making. The CFIR [ 26 ] will be used in a similar fashion by contributing a priori codes that will serve to distinguish different types of implementation strategies, such as strategies that focus on the ‘inner setting’ or the ‘outer setting’. Finally, the categories will be aggregated into broader themes related to implementation strategy patterns, implementation decision-making, and stakeholders’ perceptions of strategies.

The use of multiple respondents is intentional, as some individuals may be more or less knowledgeable about their organization’s approach to implementation; however, it is possible that participants from a given agency may not endorse the use of the same strategies [ 86 ]. The approach to handling such ‘discrepancies’ will be one of inclusion, in that each unique strategy endorsed will be recorded as ‘in use’ at that agency (for an example of this approach, see Hysong et al. [ 82 ]). If participants’ responses regarding strategies vary widely within a given organization, it may be indicative of a lack of a coherent or consistent strategy [ 86 ]. The use of mixed methods and multiple sources of data will allow us to make sense of reported variation in strategy use by affording the opportunity to determine the extent to which these sources of data converge [ 57 , 64 , 86 , 87 ]. The use of multiple respondents and different sources of data also reduces the threat of bias that is sometimes associated with the collection of retrospective accounts of phenomena such as business strategy [ 69 ].

Quantitative data analysis

The developed survey capturing stakeholders’ perceptions of implementation strategies will yield descriptive data that will augment the qualitative data from semi-structured interviews, document review, and focus groups. In the cross-case analysis, this data will be compared to determine differences and similarities between cases. Data will also be pooled across all seven cases to reveal an overall picture of strategy use, as well as perceived effectiveness, relative importance, acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness of implementation strategies.

Results from the OSC measure will be analyzed and interpreted in consultation with its developer according to procedures described by Glisson et al . [ 43 ]. Scoring will be completed at the University of Tennessee’s Children’s Mental Health Services Research Center, including the generation of internal reliability estimates (alpha), agreement indices for organizational unit profiles, and t-scores for culture and climate. The resulting organizational profiles can be compared to norms from a nationwide sample of 1,154 clinicians in 100 mental health clinics, which affords the opportunity to determine the generalizability of study findings beyond the selected sites. The OSC data will serve to characterize the organizations’ culture and climate in individual case descriptions. Additionally, organizations will be stratified by their OSC profiles in order to differentiate more positive cultures (highly proficient and not very rigid or resistant) and climates (highly engaged, highly functional, low stress) from less positive cultures (low proficiency, highly rigid and resistant) and climates (low engagement and functionality, high stress) [ 43 ]. Qualitative results will then be categorized according to those OSC profiles to determine whether strategy patterns, approaches to decision-making, and perceptions of strategies vary by organizational culture and climate.

Mixed methods analysis

As previously mentioned, the structure of this study is QUAL → quan, meaning that qualitative methods precede quantitative and that they are predominant [ 64 , 88 ]. This serves the primary function of ‘development,’ as collecting qualitative data in Aims 1 to 3 affords the opportunity to examine the impact of organizational context in Aim 4. It also serves the function of ‘convergence’ by using quantitative and qualitative data to answer the same question in Aim 3 [ 64 ].

The processes of ‘mixing’ the qualitative and quantitative data flow directly from these functions. To serve the function of ‘development, ’ the quantitative data on organizational social context [ 43 ] is connected with the qualitative and quantitative results from Aims 1 to 3 regarding implementation strategy use, implementation decision-making, and stakeholder perceptions of implementation strategies [ 64 ]. Assuming there is a meaningful relationship between organizational social context and the data from Aims 1 to 3, this can be shown in a joint display [ 88 ] that categorizes the themes emerging from the qualitative and quantitative data based upon the OSC profiles [ 43 ] as described above. For example, a separate table may be used to show how implementation strategy patterns differ based upon organizational social context. Examples of this approach can be found in Killaspy et al . [ 89 ] and Hysong et al . [ 82 ], and are also detailed in Creswell and Plano-Clark’s methods book [ 88 ].

To serve the function of ‘convergence, ’ the qualitative data and quantitative data will be merged in order to answer the same question, which for Aim 3 is, ‘What are implementation stakeholders’ perceptions of implementation strategies’? These data are merged for the purpose of triangulation; in this case, to use the quantitative data from the stakeholder perceptions survey to validate and confirm the qualitative findings from the focus-group interviews. Once again, this process can be depicted through a table placing qualitative themes side by side with the quantitative findings to show the extent to which the data converges [ 88 ].

It is worth noting that the approaches to ‘mixing’ qualitative and quantitative data will be used at both the case-level and the cross-case level (as described below).

Cross-case analysis

A primary benefit of a multiple case study is the ability to make comparisons across cases. The proposed study will utilize cross-case synthesis [ 57 ], which treats individual cases as separate studies that are then compared to identify similarities and differences between the cases. This will involve creating word tables or matrices that will display the data according to a uniform framework [ 57 , 84 ]. For example, data from the first three aims (strategy patterns, implementation decision-making, and stakeholder perceptions) will be categorized based upon their OSC profiles [ 43 ] in Aim 4. This approach will be used to compare across cases for each of the proposed aims, allowing for meaningful similarities, differences, and site-specific experiences to emerge from the data [ 56 , 57 ].

Limitations

A number of limitations should be considered. There is some concern that the organizations in the sample will not be comparable since they will not all be implementing the same programs and practices. There are several protections against this danger. First, while there is evidence to suggest that specific programs and practices will require unique implementation strategies e.g ., [ 90 ], implementation strategies can also be viewed as more general components of an organization’s infrastructure [ 34 ]. In fact, this view of implementation strategies may become more salient as we begin to shift the focus away from implementing solitary practices and toward fostering evidence-based systems and “learning organizations” capable of implementing a number of EBTs well [ 91 ]. Obtaining descriptive data about the types of implementation strategies that organizations are currently using is a first step toward determining which strategies may need to be routinized in organizations and systems of care. Second, while they may not all be implementing the same interventions, the organizations in this sample are comparable in terms of client need, service provision, funding requirements, and other external or ‘outer setting’ factors [ 26 ]. Third, programs and practices can be compared in meaningful ways based upon their characteristics [ 39 , 40 , 92 ].

The cross-sectional nature of the data will not reveal how implementation processes change over time. Additionally, recall bias may limit the accuracy of participants’ memories of implementation processes. The use of multiple informants and data sources ( i.e ., triangulation) will increase the validity of findings and minimize the threat of this bias [ 57 , 58 ].

A final challenge is the lack of existing surveys that can assess stakeholder perceptions of strategies; however, the web-based survey will be informed by theories related to the intervention characteristics associated with increased adoption [ 26 , 39 , 40 ], related surveys [ 75 ], a taxonomy of implementation outcomes [ 74 ], and other emerging measurement models e.g ., [ 93 ].

Trial status

The Institutional Review Board at Washington University in St. Louis has approved all study procedures. Recruitment and data collection for this study began in March of 2013.

Improving the quality of children’s social services will require ‘making the right thing to do, the easy thing to do’ [ 94 ] by providing organizational leaders and clinicians with the tools they need to provide evidence-based care. In order for this to be accomplished, there is much we need to know about the approaches to implementation that routinely occur, the ‘on the ground’ perspectives of organizational stakeholders regarding the types of implementation strategies that are likely to work, and the ways in which organizational context impacts implementation processes. This study represents a novel approach to studying implementation as usual in the control group of an implementation RCT. By shedding light on ‘implementation as usual’ in children’s social service settings, this study will inform efforts to develop and tailor strategies, propelling the field toward the ideal of evidence-based implementation.

Abbreviations

Availability Responsiveness and Continuity

Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research

Evidence-Based Treatments

National Research Service Award

National Institute of Mental Health

Organizational Social Context

randomized controlled trial

qualitative (dominate method)

quantitative (subordinate method).

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Acknowledgements

Funding for this study has been provided by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) through a National Research Service Award (NRSA) Individual Pre-Doctoral Fellowship (NIMH F31 MH098478; Powell, PI), the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation through a Fellowship for the Advancement of Child Well-Being (administered by Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago), the Fahs-Beck Fund for Research and Experimentation at the New York Community Trust, and the larger randomized clinical trial that is providing the sample of organizations and measure of OSC (NIMH R01 MH084855; Glisson, PI). This project was also made possible by training support from an NIMH NRSA Institutional Pre-Doctoral Fellowship (NIMH T32 MH19960; Proctor, PI) and a National Institutes of Health Pre-Doctoral Institutional Training Fellowship through the Washington University School of Medicine (NIH TL1 RR024995, UL1 RR024992; Polonsky, PI). The protocol was strengthened by the receipt of feedback on preliminary versions presented at the NIMH-funded Seattle Implementation Research Conference on October 13, 2011, and Knowledge Translation Canada’s Summer Institute funded by the Canadian Institute for Health Research on June 5, 2012.

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Byron J Powell, Enola K Proctor, Patricia L Kohl, Ramesh Raghavan & Ross C Brownson

College of Social Work, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA

Charles A Glisson

Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA

Ramesh Raghavan

Department of Surgery and Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, MO, St. Louis, 63130, USA

Ross C Brownson

Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis, MO, St. Louis, 63130, USA

Bradley P Stoner

Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA

Department of Emergency Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA

Christopher R Carpenter

School of Social Work, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 90089, USA

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The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

BJP is the principal investigator of the study. BJP generated the idea and designed the study, drafted the manuscript, and approved all changes. EKP is the primary mentor on BJP’s F31 award from the National Institute of Mental Health and the award from the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation. CAG is the principal investigator and EKP is the co-principal investigator of the ARC RCT that provides the context for the current study. CAG is the developer of the OSC survey, and he and his colleagues from the Children’s Mental Health Services Research Center at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville will assist with the analysis and interpretation of that data. EKP, CAG, PLK, RR, RCB, BPS, CRC, and LAP provided input into the design of the study. All authors reviewed and provided feedback for this manuscript. The final version of this manuscript was vetted and approved by all authors.

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Powell, B.J., Proctor, E.K., Glisson, C.A. et al. A mixed methods multiple case study of implementation as usual in children’s social service organizations: study protocol. Implementation Sci 8 , 92 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-8-92

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What Matters in a Research to Practice Cycle? pp 67–105 Cite as

The Collective Case Study Design: Comparing Six Research to Practice Case Studies

• Christine Grima-Farrell 2 , 3  
• First Online: 08 September 2016

1055 Accesses

Methodological terminology can sometimes be seen as a foreign language to those who are expected to be informed consumers of researchers. This chapter describes the methodological structure used in this research in detail with the aim of providing clarity around research decisions and protocols. It refutes any notions of teachers being perceived as objects of research or reform to teachers being change agents who are pivotal to inclusive education and the successful outcomes of students.

The fundamentals and critical features of empirical case study research design are featured through this chapter. The three distinct phases that comprise this study and are used as the operational pathway are also defined and described. The first phase of the research, the exploration phase, sought reports from teachers’ on the factors that contributed to the success or failure of the research projects they were implemting in their classrooms. This data was collected prior to teachers being introduced to the information derived from the literature.

The second phase of this study was the explanation phase. During this phase teacher participants were introduced to a 75 factor research to practice survey and a semi structured interview, based on the RTP knowledge gained from the analysis of five bodies of literature. Teachers responded to whether these factors were identified in their cases using a numerical (1–5) Likert scale. They also presented written responses to open-ended questions about other RTP factors that significantly contributed to the status of their projects at various stages of implementation.

The final data collection stage, the expansion phase, consisted of an opportunity for all teachers to contribute to a focus group discussion. Three Figures and Tables are presented to provide a visual overview of the phased research questions and the knowledge, experiences and trajectories reported by teachers as they progressed through the stages of implementing, monitoring and evaluating a range of validated research projects.

This chapter:

Describes the methodology implemented thoughout this investigation and highlights the importance of comprehending and analysing the specific detail critical to research rigour.

Defines case study research, the different types of case study and related approaches that were used to inform the well considered design decisions.

Presents a definition of comparative case studies with related strengths and limitations.

Introduces Yin’s (1994) complex case study design and Fraenkel and Wallen’s (2006) description of the features of comparative case study.

Explains how replication logic is utilised as an approach that ensures consistency in implementation.

Describes data collection methods, analysis and validity techniques employed to address the research questions.

Presents the specific procedures used in the context of the study describing, participant researcher bias, participant details, setting, research design, data collection and analysis processes.

Highlights the importance of reading and comprehending the methodological decisions as well as focussing on the elements essential to practical applications.

Outlines how important the methodological decisions are to the validity of the research and how they are at the core of this chapter.

Presents key components of comparative case study analysis for future use in national and international RTP investigations.

Specifics related to the methods and research instruments are presented in detail to provide a scaffold for professionals who may wish to use this methodological approach (or elements from it) to embark upon their own case study research journey.

• Focus Group
• Data Collection Method
• Expansion Phase
• Case Study Research
• Data Collection Tool

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University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia

Christine Grima-Farrell

Australian Catholic University, Strathfield, Australia

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Grima-Farrell, C. (2017). The Collective Case Study Design: Comparing Six Research to Practice Case Studies. In: What Matters in a Research to Practice Cycle?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2087-2_3

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2087-2_3

Published : 08 September 2016

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-10-2085-8

Online ISBN : 978-981-10-2087-2

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