Performance measurement and management: theory and practice

International Journal of Operations & Production Management

ISSN : 0144-3577

Article publication date: 15 November 2018

Issue publication date: 15 November 2018

Bourne, M. , Melnyk, S. and Bititci, U.S. (2018), "Performance measurement and management: theory and practice", International Journal of Operations & Production Management , Vol. 38 No. 11, pp. 2010-2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOPM-11-2018-784

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2018, Emerald Publishing Limited

Introduction

Performance measurement has been a key theme of this journal for many years ( Neely et al. , 1995 ; Neely, 2005 ). This should not come as a surprise since performance measurement and management plays a critical role in the operation of any organisation, be it a factory, business, hospital or school. As noted by Magretta and Stone (2002) , performance measures are critical because they enhance communication – they enable the organisation to address the following critical question – “Given our mission, how is our performance going to be defined?” Yet, it should also come as a surprise that in spite of this longevity of focus, this topic is still surprised by a great deal of confusion and conflict. For example, until more recently we have not agreed on what we mean by performance measurement ( Franco-Santos et al. , 2007 ; Bourne and Bourne, 2011 ; Melnyk et al. , 2004, 2014 ) and performance management ( Bourne and Bourne, 2011 ; Melnyk et al. , 2004, 2014 ). This confusion is present in both academic research and in the practitioner press. Confounding this confusion is the tight interrelationship that exists between theory and practice.

It has been long argued that many of the developments in performance measurement have come from practice ( Johnson, 1972, 1975, 1978, 1981 ; Wilcox and Bourne, 2003 ) and this practice has informed the academic performance measurement literature. A very clear example of this phenomenon is the Balanced Scorecard, originally developed at Analogue Devices ( Schneiderman, 2001 ) and subsequently made widely accessible by Kaplan and Norton (1992) . But although this type of research is to be applauded, it is not enough. Ultimately, it suffers from being a theoretical, using Sutton and Staw (1995) categorisation scheme. Such research, while important for improving performance and the ability of the firm to record and monitor activities, does not build causality or help to explain or, as is becoming more important in today’s dynamic environment ( Nudurupait et al. , 2016 ), predict and deal with the increasing complexity now being faced by researchers and managers alike.

We need to build theory, whether from practice or other areas of business research, and validate our theory through empirical research to develop a deeper understanding and platform for the future development of the field. Furthermore, we need to build theory that operates at the various levels of the organisation – inter-organisational (relevant for a world where supply chain management is becoming so important); organisational at macro or top management levels (the focus of much of the current body of research in this area) and the lower levels of the organisation (i.e. at the function, group and, ultimately, the individual levels – the micro levels). We need to build theories that are anchored not only in the economic world but that also recognise the increasing importance of behavioural issues. So, for this special issue, we were particularly interested in papers that explore the interface between theory and practice and that add richness, as described in the preceding discussion, to the resulting theoretical developments.

But performance measurement and management are broad subjects and performance measurement and management systems (PMMS) have a wide scope. They include the top down processes of aligning the business with strategic direction as promulgated by process approaches to the development and implementation of PMMS (e.g. Kaplan and Norton, 1993 ; Neely et al. , 1996 ; Bititci et al. , 1997 ; Neely et al. , 2000 ) and to the bottom up use of performance measurement in lean ( Bhasin and Burcher, 2006 ; Krafcik, 1988 ). They include the dynamics of people and teams, interactions between department, relationships between parent and subsidiary organisations as well as performance measurement and management in the supply chain.

Performance measurement and management is not only the preserve of the private sector. Articles in this journal have reported on the impact of PMMS in both public and third sector organisations ( Greatbanks and Tapp, 2007 ; Moxham and Boaden, 2007 ). This special issue too reflects this pervasiveness of PMS, despite the fact that the papers published here happen to have focused on the private sector. We have a number of different perspectives on performance measurement and management. This includes three papers on buyer–supplier relationships, one on collaborative performance measurement systems, one the impact of supplier performance management systems (PMSs) and one on contracting. We have five papers looking at the complexities and interactions between different elements of the performance measurement system inside organisations with two of these focusing on lean. The final paper develops a framework for swift and even flow.

So in the rest of this editorial we will discuss the following. Let us begin with an overview of the early literature and the development of the four phases of PMMS before turning our attention to the need for theory to focus on the use of PMMS in directing and managing organisations. Then we will move on to the range of theory used in empirical research and in the papers presented here before going on to describe the contributions made in this special issue. We will then discuss the contribution of the Ferriera and Otley (2009) framework before suggesting future direction for theory development.

The use of theory in performance measurement and management

Early literature on PMMS focused on the four phases of PMMS, design, implementation, use and refresh ( Neely et al. , 2000 ; Bourne et al. , 2000 ). There is a strong argument that the debate has now moved on from the design and implementation of PMMS to its use, Franco-Santos and Bourne, 2005 ), impact ( Franco-Santos et al. , 2012 ) and emergence ( Pavlov and Bourne, 2011 ).

The work on approaches ( Dixon et al. , 1990 ) and processes for the design and implementation of PMMS ( Neely et al. , 1997 ; Bititci et al. , 1997 ; Olve et al. , 1999 ) initially adopted the three tests on feasibility, usability and utility ( Platts, 1993 ) before considering the success and failure of the design to implementation phase ( Bourne et al. , 2002 ; Bourne, 2005 ) and the quality of implementation. One of the overarching pieces here was the Bititci et al. (2006) paper which identified the need for different cultures and management styles when moving from the design and implementation phases to measurement in use phases. We would argue that it is possible to theorise about the design and implementation phases but in reality, these are as much about the implementation of change ( Bourne et al. , 2004 ) as anything else. There have also been interesting insights into the formal approaches to refreshing measurement systems ( Kennerley and Neely, 2003 ) and more recently addressing the issue of how to keep measurement systems up to date ( Melnyk et al. , 2014 ), but we strongly suggest that there is now a compelling need to develop theory around the continuing use and emergent development of PMMS.

agency theory ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ; Feltham and Xie, 1994 ; Jensen and Meckling, 1976 ; Jensen and Murphy, 1990 );

contingency theory ( Donaldson, 2001 ; Hayes, 1977 ; Otley, 1980 );

resource-based view of the firm ( Barney, 1991 ; Day, 1994 );

cognitive and information processing theories ( Miller, 1956 ; Simon, 1976 ; Talyer, 2010 ; Kunda, 1990 );

goal setting theory ( Locke and Latham, 1990 ); and

equity, distributive and procedural justice theories ( Adams, 1965 ; Greenberg, 1990 ).

In this special issue, we have papers too that use theories matching three of the six groups of theories identified in Franco-Santos et al. (2012) . Papers published here are using resource-based view (2), cognitive theories and decision making (2) and contingency theory. But we also have papers focusing on theories more relevant to PMMS in operations (performance-based contracting (PBC) and swift even flow) as well as theories related to complementarity in PMMSs, and extending the concept of levers of control ( Simons 1991 ). The papers in this special issue are summarised in Table I . We will briefly describe these papers next.

The first paper by Vieri Maestrini, Veronica Martinez, Andy Neely, Davide Luzzini, Federico Caniato and Paolo Maccarrone looks at how buyers and suppliers can collaborate in their use of their performance measurement system. In this paper, they present a tool they have called the “Relationship Regulator” which they develop, test and refine. The development was based on the literature and empirical research, whilst the testing was undertaken through workshops and feedback obtained from semi-structured interviews. This is theory building and testing of a collaborative approach to performance measurement.

The second paper by Vieri Maestrini, Davide Luzzini, Federico Caniato, Paolo Maccarrone and Stefano Ronchi is an impact paper in that it researches the impact of supplier performance measurement systems on supplier performance through hypothesis testing using survey data. However, the interest in this paper is the use of resource orchestration theory (ROT) as the theoretical framework for their analysis. They found ROT to be a suitable theoretical framework to explain the role of a mature supplier performance measurement system in orchestrating the suppliers.

The third paper by Andreas Glas, Florian Henne and Michael Essig is a literature review on the intersection of PBC and performance measurement and management. The review highlights the performance measurement and management gap in PBC identifying for research opportunities: strategic alignment (which the authors consider astonishing as PBC is supposed to be outcome orientated), action and refreshing, performance monitoring and reporting, and other aspects including the selection of appropriate KPIs.

The fourth paper by Mohamed Afy-Shararah and Nicholas Rich creates a model that captures the design elements of high performance operating management systems for swift even flow. The work builds on ten longitudinal case studies selected from the UK’s high value manufacturing sector highlighting the links between policy deployment, operational control and improvement to open collaborative partnerships.

The fifth paper by Henrik Nielsen, Thomas Kristensen and Lawrence Grassol is the first of two papers focusing on lean. The paper uses survey research to investigate the impact of social control mechanisms, behavioural control mechanisms and their complementarity on firm performance using data collected from over 4,000 subjects in nearly 700 facilities. The respondents to the survey behind this work were identified from through the “Shingo Prise”.

The sixth paper by Martijn van der Steen and Sandra Tillema takes a different approach and looks at lean implementation. Using case studies in three subsidiary companies, they suggest that lean can be severely constrained by the parent organisations accounting based control systems. The paper demonstrates how external context creates local conditions that may be detrimental to lean in manufacturing.

The seventh paper by Bijana Pesalji, Andrey Pavlov and Pietro Micheli uses the levers of control framework from Simons (1991) to investigate practices in a Dutch-based SME. The paper advances our understanding of the use of technical and social aspects of performance management and suggests that performance management requires the active and continuous use of all four control mechanisms that comprise the levers of control approach.

The eighth paper by Marcus Hasegan, Sai Nudurupati and Stephen Childe reports on the use of action research for developing dynamic performance measurement systems with real-time controls on the production lines to study the impact. The paper explains how the use of tacit knowledge and modelling were used in developing effective cause and effect analysis.

The last paper by Anthony Alexander, Maneesh Kumar and Helen Walker considers the application of decision theory under volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity (VUCA). Drawing on the Cynefin framework ( Snowden, 2000, 2002 ; Snowden and Boone, 2007 ), this paper develops the performance alignment matrix ( Melnyk et al. , 2014 ) drawing on interview research in seven case studies. The approach is designed to deal with complexity and emergence enabling managers in the positions of authority to take decisions. This paper highlights the need for organisations to adjust their performance measurement and management system over time to adapt to the external environment as a way of reformulating strategy, promoting intended behaviour and organisational learning.

So, from a theory and practice perspective, we must conclude that the special issue has attracted a wide variety of papers, research methods and applications from different contexts. The papers contribute to our understanding of performance measurement and management in buyer–supplier relationships, performance contracting and operational flow. The papers create insight into the issue of complimentary or conflicting aspects of control systems, especially in a lean setting and we have insights into balancing controls in SMEs as well as how to deal with VUCA environments. In the next section, we will focus of discussion on theory in PMMS.

If we review the theoretical approach taken both the papers in this special issue and by those empirical pieces identified in the Franco-Santos et al. (2012) literature review, it must be noted that they are not theories of performance measurement and management, but more general management theories applied to this subject area. What we are currently lacking is an underpinning theory to help us advance the field.

What is the vision and mission of the organisation and how is this brought to the attention of managers and employees? What mechanisms, processes and networks are used to convey the organisation’s overarching purposes and objectives to its members?

What are the key factors that are believed to be central to the organisation’s overall future success and how are they brought to the attention of managers and employees?

What is the organisation structure and what impact does it have on the design and use of PMSs? How does it influence and how is it influenced by the strategic management process?

What strategies and plans has the organisation adopted and what are the processes and activities that it has decided will be required for it to ensure its success? How are strategies and plans adapted, generated and communicated to managers and employees?

What are the organisation’s key performance measures deriving from its objectives, key success factors and strategies and plans? How are these are specified and communicated and what role do they play in performance evaluation? Are there significant omissions?

What the level of performance does the organisation need to achieve for each of its key performance measures (identified in the above question), how does it go about setting appropriate performance targets for them and how challenging are those performance targets?

What processes, if any, does the organisation follow for evaluating individual, group and organisational performance? Are performance evaluations primarily objective, subjective or mixed and how important are formal and informal information and controls in these processes?

What rewards – financial and/or non-financial – will managers and other employees gain by achieving performance targets or other assessed aspects of performance (or, conversely, what penalties will they suffer by failing to achieve them)?

What specific information flows – feedback and feedforward – systems and networks has the organisation in place to support the operation of its PMSs?

What type of use is made of information and of the various control mechanisms in place? Can these uses be characterised in terms of various typologies in the literature? How do controls and their uses differ at different hierarchical levels?

How have the PMSs altered in the light of the change dynamics of the organisation and its environment? Have the changes in PMSs design or use been made in a proactive or reactive manner?

How strong and coherent are the links between the components of PMSs and the ways in which they are used.

We should reflect that the framework, whilst informed by the management control literature, was developed inductively and informed by the experience of case study research ( Ferriera and Otley, 2009 , p. 276), which is why it has such a strong link to practice and why it is so useful as a holistic tool for examining the structure, operation and use of PMSs in organisations.

In many ways, this framework follows some of the early research works ( Neely et al. , 1996 ) and publications ( Kaplan and Norton, 1993, 2001 ) on PMMS, whereby the vision and mission of the organisation is translated into a strategy that is operationalised through the performance measurement and management systems. However, the Ferriera and Otley (2009) framework progresses far beyond this as it includes the development of targets, the processes of evaluation, information flow and link to rewards. Further, question 11 alludes to the dynamic nature of PMMSs and recognises that they evolve over time; so their development is not solely determined through interventions such as redesign initiatives.

Although this is an extremely useful theoretical framework, it is not a theory of performance measurement or performance management. To develop such a theory, we need to understand the mechanisms at play in the organisation when performance measures are being used to manage activities, changes of activity and future direction of the organisation. There have been calls for such a meta theory ( Franco-Santos et al. , 2012 ; Bittitci et al. , 2018 ) and we will suggest in the next section one possible direction to take in developing such an approach.

Towards one theory of performance measurement and management

The Ferriera and Otley (2009) framework described above assumes that PMMSs are systems. In reality, they may be “systems of systems” ( Bourne et al. , 2018 ) but this framework does align with a recent call to take a more systemic approach to developing theory in performance measurement and management ( Bittitci et al. , 2018 ). These systems operate through practices and routines in organisations and it is to this subject we turn next.

If we reflect on the current theories used to inform PMMS research, it can be argued that they ignore the mechanisms by which the PMMS operates. From Franco-Santos et al. ’s (2012) six theories, four of them (agency, cognitive, goal setting and equity theories) focus on the influence of system parameters on what is usually considered to be the individual decision maker. The other two focus on the impact of the wider environment, be this the external (contingency theory) or internal (resource-based view) context. What we are not arguing here that these are not useful lenses to take in analysing the PMMSs in organisations, we are simply suggesting that adopting an alternative approach that takes a systems perspective by focusing of the operating mechanisms of PMMS could give use new insights.

One such approach is the adoption of routines ( Pavlov and Bourne, 2011 ). In their paper, the authors argue that performance measurement triggers, guides and intensifies the search for solutions to improve the performance of the organisation (see Figure 1 ). As this happens in performance review meetings (regular events where groups of managers meet to review, evaluate and act on performance information ( Martinez et al. , 2010 ); Pavlov and Bourne, 2011 ) when routines are developed which evolve into mechanisms used in the management of the organisation. This approach takes us away from the concept of the individual decision maker to the domain of multiple decision makers (albeit in a situation where some have considerably more power and influence than others). Understanding the mechanisms at play here would give us different insights.

In reality, organisations have multiple situations where performance is reviewed. These may be formal board meetings, operational planning meetings, sales management meetings, project management meetings, etc. Decisions may be made by individual decision makers acting on their own (although we would suggest that this happens far more infrequently than one would surmise from the focus of research in the management literature) but implementing action invariably requires involving others. This suggests (in all but the smallest organisations) a series of links between individuals at different levels of the organisation. Individual managers involved in running one routine (performance review meeting) will usually be participants in a higher level performance review meeting, whilst the people attending this manager’s meeting may well be running their own routine (performance review meeting) at a lower level in the organisation. In this situation, routines being influenced and guided by other routines (see Figure 2 ) together with the individual managers’ membership of performance review meetings being the conduit of the PMMS between different levels in the organisation (see Figure 3 ).

Because these mechanisms are routines, they develop over time as the mental models of what is happening influences the pattern of behaviours and the pattern of behaviours influence the mental models. This is not only sense making in practice, but probably also how emergent strategy develops and is implemented outside the formal mechanisms for strategy development in most organisation.

The domain of performance measurement and management continues to develop and, if performance measurement and management evolve to enable us to control new and emerging forms of organisations in new and emerging contexts, then it will always continue to do so. In this special issue, we have seen the development of interesting new frameworks and understanding based on using theory to reflect on practice and practice to inform our development of theory.

However, we still believe that future research in this field would benefit from adopting a more systems-based approach to understanding the mechanisms at play in PMMS. We have suggested that understanding these mechanisms in practice would be beneficial to the field and would give us a platform for future research. But, if and when we develop this better understanding, we suspect that we will still be using other more encompassing management theories, such as those used and identified here, to understand the pressures and influences on the mechanism.

case study management theory and practice

Effects of PM on organisational routines

case study management theory and practice

Effects of the structure of PMMS on organisational routines

case study management theory and practice

The overlap of points of membership in the hierarchy of organisation routines

Summary of papers in this special issue

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Further reading

Barnes , B.R. , Naudé , P. and Michell , P. ( 2006 ), “ Perceptual gaps and similarities in buyer – seller dyadic relationships ”, Industrial Marketing Management , Vol. 36 No. 5 , pp. 662 - 675 .

Bititci , U. , Garengo , P. , Dörfler , V. and Nudurupati , S. ( 2012 ), “ Performance measurement: challenges for tomorrow ”, International Journal of Management Reviews , Vol. 14 No. 3 , pp. 305 - 327 .

Bourne , M. , Kennerley , M. and Franco-Santos , M. ( 2005 ), “ Managing through measures: a study of impact on performance ”, Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management , Vol. 16 No. 4 , pp. 373 - 395 .

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Change Management: From Theory to Practice

Jeffrey phillips.

1 University Libraries, Florida State University, 116 Honors Way, Tallahassee, FL 32306 USA

James D. Klein

2 Department of Educational Psychology & Learning Systems, College of Education, Florida State University, Stone Building-3205F, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4453 USA

This article presents a set of change management strategies found across several models and frameworks and identifies how frequently change management practitioners implement these strategies in practice. We searched the literature to identify 15 common strategies found in 16 different change management models and frameworks. We also created a questionnaire based on the literature and distributed it to change management practitioners. Findings suggest that strategies related to communication, stakeholder involvement, encouragement, organizational culture, vision, and mission should be used when implementing organizational change.

Organizations must change to survive. There are many approaches to influence change; these differences require change managers to consider various strategies that increase acceptance and reduce barriers. A change manager is responsible for planning, developing, leading, evaluating, assessing, supporting, and sustaining a change implementation. Change management consists of models and strategies to help employees accept new organizational developments.

Change management practitioners and academic researchers view organizational change differently (Hughes, 2007 ; Pollack & Pollack, 2015 ). Saka ( 2003 ) states, “there is a gap between what the rational-linear change management approach prescribes and what change agents do” (p. 483). This disconnect may make it difficult to determine the suitability and appropriateness of using different techniques to promote change (Pollack & Pollack, 2015 ). Hughes ( 2007 ) thinks that practitioners and academics may have trouble communicating because they use different terms. Whereas academics use the terms, models, theories, and concepts, practitioners use tools and techniques. A tool is a stand-alone application, and a technique is an integrated approach (Dale & McQuater, 1998 ). Hughes ( 2007 ) expresses that classifying change management tools and techniques can help academics identify what practitioners do in the field and evaluate the effectiveness of practitioners’ implementations.

There is little empirical evidence that supports a preferred change management model (Hallencreutz & Turner, 2011 ). However, there are many similar strategies found across change management models (Raineri, 2011 ). Bamford and Forrester’s ( 2003 ) case study showed that “[change] managers in a company generally ignored the popular change literature” (p. 560). The authors followed Pettigrew’s ( 1987 ) suggestions that change managers should not use abstract theories; instead, they should relate change theories to the context of the change. Neves’ ( 2009 ) exploratory factor analysis of employees experiencing the implementation of a new performance appraisal system at a public university suggested that (a) change appropriateness (if the employee felt the change was beneficial to the organization) was positively related with affective commitment (how much the employee liked their job), and (b) affective commitment mediated the relationship between change appropriateness and individual change (how much the employee shifted to the new system). It is unlikely that there is a universal change management approach that works in all settings (Saka, 2003 ). Because change is chaotic, one specific model or framework may not be useful in multiple contexts (Buchanan & Boddy, 1992 ; Pettigrew & Whipp, 1991 ). This requires change managers to consider various approaches for different implementations (Pettigrew, 1987 ). Change managers may face uncertainties that cannot be addressed by a planned sequence of steps (Carnall, 2007 ; Pettigrew & Whipp, 1991 ). Different stakeholders within an organization may complete steps at different times (Pollack & Pollack, 2015 ). Although there may not be one perspective change management approach, many models and frameworks consist of similar change management strategies.

Anderson and Ackerman Anderson ( 2001 ) discuss the differences between change frameworks and change process models. They state that a change framework identifies topics that are relevant to the change and explains the procedures that organizations should acknowledge during the change. However, the framework does not provide details about how to accomplish the steps of the change or the sequence in which the change manager should perform the steps. Additionally, Anderson and Ackerman Anderson ( 2001 ) explain that change process models describe what actions are necessary to accomplish the change and the order in which to facilitate the actions. Whereas frameworks may identify variables or theories required to promote change, models focus on the specific processes that lead to change. Based on the literature, we define a change strategy as a process or action from a model or framework. Multiple models and frameworks contain similar strategies. Change managers use models and frameworks contextually; some change management strategies may be used across numerous models and frameworks.

The purpose of this article is to present a common set of change management strategies found across numerous models and frameworks and identify how frequently change management practitioners implement these common strategies in practice. We also compare current practice with models and frameworks from the literature. Some change management models and frameworks have been around for decades and others are more recent. This comparison may assist practitioners and theorists to consider different strategies that fall outside a specific model.

Common Strategies in the Change Management Literature

We examined highly-cited publications ( n  > 1000 citations) from the last 20 years, business websites, and university websites to select organizational change management models and frameworks. First, we searched two indexes—Google Scholar and Web of Science’s Social Science Citation Index. We used the following keywords in both indexes: “change management” OR “organizational change” OR “organizational development” AND (models or frameworks). Additionally, we used the same search terms in a Google search to identify models mentioned on university and business websites. This helped us identify change management models that had less presence in popular research. We only included models and frameworks from our search results that were mentioned on multiple websites. We reached saturation when multiple publications stopped identifying new models and frameworks.

After we identified the models and frameworks, we analyzed the original publications by the authors to identify observable strategies included in the models and frameworks. We coded the strategies by comparing new strategies with our previously coded strategies, and we combined similar strategies or created a new strategy. Our list of strategies was not exhaustive, but we included the most common strategies found in the publications. Finally, we omitted publications that did not provide details about the change management strategies. Although many of these publications were highly cited and identified change implementation processes or phases, the authors did not identify a specific strategy.

Table ​ Table1 1 shows the 16 models and frameworks that we analyzed and the 15 common strategies that we identified from this analysis. Ackerman-Anderson and Anderson ( 2001 ) believe that it is important for process models to consider organizational imperatives as well as human dynamics and needs. Therefore, the list of strategies considers organizational imperatives such as create a vision for the change that aligns with the organization’s mission and strategies regarding human dynamics and needs such as listen to employees’ concerns about the change. We have presented the strategies in order of how frequently the strategies appear in the models and frameworks. Table ​ Table1 1 only includes strategies found in at least six of the models or frameworks.

Common strategies in the change management literature

A = ADKAR (Hiatt, 2006 ); AA = Ackerman Anderson and Anderson ( 2001 ); B = Bridges ( 1991 ); BB = Buchanan and Boddy ( 1992 ); BH = Beckhard and Harris ( 1987 ); C = Carnall ( 2007 ); CW = Cummings and Worley ( 1993 ); FB = French and Bell ( 1999 ); GE = GE CAP model (Neri et al., 2008 ; Polk, 2011 ); K = Kotter ( 2012 ); KSJ = Kanter et al. ( 1992 ); L = Lewin’s Three-step model (Bakari et al., 2017 ; Lewin, 1951 ); LK = Luecke ( 2003 ); M = McKinsey’s 7-S framework (Cox et al., 2019 ; Waterman et al., 1980 ); N = Nadler and Tushman ( 1997 ); PW = Pettigrew and Whipp (1993)

Strategies Used by Change Managers

We developed an online questionnaire to determine how frequently change managers used the strategies identified in our review of the literature. The Qualtrics-hosted survey consisted of 28 questions including sliding-scale, multiple-choice, and Likert-type items. Demographic questions focused on (a) how long the participant had been involved in the practice of change management, (b) how many change projects the participant had led, (c) the types of industries in which the participant led change implementations, (d) what percentage of job responsibilities involved working as a change manager and a project manager, and (e) where the participant learned to conduct change management. Twenty-one Likert-type items asked how often the participant used the strategies identified by our review of common change management models and frameworks. Participants could select never, sometimes, most of the time, and always. The Cronbach’s Alpha of the Likert-scale questions was 0.86.

The procedures for the questionnaire followed the steps suggested by Gall et al. ( 2003 ). The first steps were to define the research objectives, select the sample, and design the questionnaire format. The fourth step was to pretest the questionnaire. We conducted cognitive laboratory interviews by sending the questionnaire and interview questions to one person who was in the field of change management, one person who was in the field of performance improvement, and one person who was in the field of survey development (Fowler, 2014 ). We met with the reviewers through Zoom to evaluate the questionnaire by asking them to read the directions and each item for clarity. Then, reviewers were directed to point out mistakes or areas of confusion. Having multiple people review the survey instruments improved the reliability of the responses (Fowler, 2014 ).

We used purposeful sampling to distribute the online questionnaire throughout the following organizations: the Association for Talent Development (ATD), Change Management Institute (CMI), and the International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI). We also launched a call for participation to department chairs of United States universities who had Instructional Systems Design graduate programs with a focus on Performance Improvement. We used snowball sampling to gain participants by requesting that the department chairs forward the questionnaire to practitioners who had led at least one organizational change.

Table ​ Table2 2 provides a summary of the characteristics of the 49 participants who completed the questionnaire. Most had over ten years of experience practicing change management ( n  = 37) and had completed over ten change projects ( n  = 32). The participants learned how to conduct change management on-the-job ( n  = 47), through books ( n  = 31), through academic journal articles ( n  = 22), and from college or university courses ( n  = 20). The participants had worked in 13 different industries.

Characteristics of participants

( n  = 49)

Table ​ Table3 3 shows how frequently participants indicated that they used the change management strategies included on the questionnaire. Forty or more participants said they used the following strategies most often or always: (1) Asked members of senior leadership to support the change; (2) Listened to managers’ concerns about the change; (3) Aligned an intended change with an organization’s mission; (4) Listened to employees’ concerns about the change; (5) Aligned an intended change with an organization’s vision; (6) Created measurable short-term goals; (7) Asked managers for feedback to improve the change, and (8) Focused on organizational culture.

Strategies used by change managers

Table ​ Table4 4 identifies how frequently the strategies appeared in the models and frameworks and the rate at which practitioners indicated they used the strategies most often or always. The strategies found in the top 25% of both ( n  > 36 for practitioner use and n  > 11 in models and frameworks) focused on communication, including senior leadership and the employees in change decisions, aligning the change with the vision and mission of the organization, and focusing on organizational culture. Practitioners used several strategies more commonly than the literature suggested, especially concerning the topic of middle management. Practitioners focused on listening to middle managers’ concerns about the change, asking managers for feedback to improve the change, and ensuring that managers were trained to promote the change. Meanwhile, practitioners did not engage in the following strategies as often as the models and frameworks suggested that they should: provide all members of the organization with clear communication about the change, distinguish the differences between leadership and management, reward new behavior, and include employees in change decisions.

A comparison of the strategies used by practitioners to the strategies found in the literature

Common Strategies Used by Practitioners and Found in the Literature

The purpose of this article was to present a common set of change management strategies found across numerous models and frameworks and to identify how frequently change management practitioners implement these common strategies in practice. The five common change management strategies were the following: communicate about the change, involve stakeholders at all levels of the organization, focus on organizational culture, consider the organization’s mission and vision, and provide encouragement and incentives to change. Below we discuss our findings with an eye toward presenting a few key recommendations for change management.

Communicate About the Change

Communication is an umbrella term that can include messaging, networking, and negotiating (Buchanan & Boddy, 1992 ). Our findings revealed that communication is essential for change management. All the models and frameworks we examined suggested that change managers should provide members of the organization with clear communication about the change. It is interesting that approximately 33% of questionnaire respondents indicated that they sometimes, rather than always or most of the time, notified all members of the organization about the change. This may be the result of change managers communicating through organizational leaders. Instead of communicating directly with everyone in the organization, some participants may have used senior leadership, middle management, or subgroups to communicate the change. Messages sent to employees from leaders can effectively promote change. Regardless of who is responsible for communication, someone in the organization should explain why the change is happening (Connor et al., 2003 ; Doyle & Brady, 2018 ; Hiatt, 2006 ; Kotter, 2012 ) and provide clear communication throughout the entire change implementation (McKinsey & Company, 2008 ; Mento et al., 2002 ).

Involve Stakeholders at All Levels of the Organization

Our results indicate that change managers should involve senior leaders, managers, as well as employees during a change initiative. The items on the questionnaire were based on a review of common change management models and frameworks and many related to some form of stakeholder involvement. Of these strategies, over half were used often by 50% or more respondents. They focused on actions like gaining support from leaders, listening to and getting feedback from managers and employees, and adjusting strategies based on stakeholder input.

Whereas the models and frameworks often identified strategies regarding senior leadership and employees, it is interesting that questionnaire respondents indicated that they often implemented strategies involving middle management in a change implementation. This aligns with Bamford and Forrester’s ( 2003 ) research describing how middle managers are important communicators of change and provide an organization with the direction for the change. However, the participants did not develop managers into leaders as often as the literature proposed. Burnes and By ( 2012 ) expressed that leadership is essential to promote change and mention how the change management field has failed to focus on leadership as much as it should.

Focus on Organizational Culture

All but one of the models and frameworks we analyzed indicated that change managers should focus on changing the culture of an organization and more than 75% of questionnaire respondents revealed that they implemented this strategy always or most of the time. Organizational culture affects the acceptance of change. Changing the organizational culture can prevent employees from returning to the previous status quo (Bullock & Batten, 1985 ; Kotter, 2012 ; Mento et al., 2002 ). Some authors have different views on how to change an organization’s culture. For example, Burnes ( 2000 ) thinks that change managers should focus on employees who were resistant to the change while Hiatt ( 2006 ) suggests that change managers should replicate what strategies they used in the past to change the culture. Change managers require open support and commitment from managers to lead a culture change (Phillips, 2021 ).

In addition, Pless and Maak ( 2004 ) describe the importance of creating a culture of inclusion where diverse viewpoints help an organization reach its organizational objectives. Yet less than half of the participants indicated that they often focused on diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI). Change managers should consider diverse viewpoints when implementing change, especially for organizations whose vision promotes a diverse and inclusive workforce.

Consider the Organization’s Mission and Vision

Several of the models and frameworks we examined mentioned that change managers should consider the mission and vision of the organization (Cummings & Worley, 1993 ; Hiatt, 2006 ; Kotter, 2012 ; Polk, 2011 ). Furthermore, aligning the change with the organization’s mission and vision were among the strategies most often implemented by participants. This was the second most common strategy both used by participants and found in the models and frameworks. A mission of an organization may include its beliefs, values, priorities, strengths, and desired public image (Cummings & Worley, 1993 ). Leaders are expected to adhere to a company’s values and mission (Strebel, 1996 ).

Provide Encouragement and Incentives to Change

Most of the change management models and frameworks suggested that organizations should reward new behavior, yet most respondents said they did not provide incentives to change. About 75% of participants did indicate that they frequently gave encouragement to employees about the change. The questionnaire may have confused participants by suggesting that they provide incentives before the change occurs. Additionally, respondents may have associated incentives with monetary compensation. Employee training can be considered an incentive, and many participants confirmed that they provided employees and managers with training. More information is needed to determine why the participants did not provide incentives and what the participants defined as rewards.

Future Conversations Between Practitioners and Researchers

Table ​ Table4 4 identified five strategies that practitioners used more often than the models and frameworks suggested and four strategies that were suggested more often by the models and frameworks than used by practitioners. One strategy that showed the largest difference was provided employees with incentives to implement the change. Although 81% of the selected models and frameworks suggested that practitioners should provide employees with incentives, only 25% of the practitioners identified that they provided incentives always and most of the time. Conversations between theorists and practitioners could determine if these differences occur because each group uses different terms (Hughes, 2007 ) or if practitioners just implement change differently than theorists suggest (Saka, 2003 ).

Additionally, conversations between theorists and practitioners may help promote improvements in the field of change management. For example, practitioners were split on how often they promoted DEI, and the selected models and frameworks did not focus on DEI in change implementations. Conversations between the two groups would help theorists understand what practitioners are doing to advance the field of change management. These conversations may encourage theorists to modify their models and frameworks to include modern approaches to change.

Limitations

The models and frameworks included in this systematic review were found through academic research and websites on the topic of change management. We did not include strategies contained on websites from change management organizations. Therefore, the identified strategies could skew towards approaches favored by theorists instead of practitioners. Additionally, we used specific publications to identify the strategies found in the models and frameworks. Any amendments to the cited models or frameworks found in future publications could not be included in this research.

We distributed this questionnaire in August 2020. Several participants mentioned that they were not currently conducting change management implementations because of global lockdowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Because it can take years to complete a change management implementation (Phillips, 2021 ), this research does not describe how COVID-19 altered the strategies used by the participants. Furthermore, participants were not provided with definitions of the strategies. Their interpretations of the strategies may differ from the definitions found in the academic literature.

Future Research

Future research should expand upon what strategies the practitioners use to determine (a) how the practitioners use the strategies, and (b) the reasons why practitioners use certain strategies. Participants identified several strategies that they did not use as often as the literature suggested (e.g., provide employees with incentives and adjust the change implementation because of reactions from employees). Future research should investigate why practitioners are not implementing these strategies often.

Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic may have changed how practitioners implemented change management strategies. Future research should investigate if practitioners have added new strategies or changed the frequency in which they identified using the strategies found in this research.

Our aim was to identify a common set of change management strategies found across several models and frameworks and to identify how frequently change management practitioners implement these strategies in practice. While our findings relate to specific models, frameworks, and strategies, we caution readers to consider the environment and situation where the change will occur. Therefore, strategies should not be selected for implementation based on their inclusion in highly cited models and frameworks. Our study identified strategies found in the literature and used by change managers, but it does not predict that specific strategies are more likely to promote a successful organizational change. Although we have presented several strategies, we do not suggest combining these strategies to create a new framework. Instead, these strategies should be used to promote conversation between practitioners and theorists. Additionally, we do not suggest that one model or framework is superior to others because it contains more strategies currently used by practitioners. Evaluating the effectiveness of a model or framework by how many common strategies it contains gives an advantage to models and frameworks that contain the most strategies. Instead, this research identifies what practitioners are doing in the field to steer change management literature towards the strategies that are most used to promote change.

Declarations

This research does not represent conflicting interests or competing interests. The research was not funded by an outside agency and does not represent the interests of an outside party.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Jeffrey Phillips, Email: ude.usf@spillihpbj .

James D. Klein, Email: ude.usf@nielkj .

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Management: Theory and Practice, and Cases

  • A novel-based series of books is incorporating the "hero's journey" classic story structure along with the creation of associated fictional case characters designed to engage readers in the dimensions of human behavior, decision making, and judgments in carrying out the work of the modern corporation.

Author Abstract

This working paper reports on a major Harvard Business School project designed to enhance MBA and practicing executives in case learning. The work is built on the foundation of HBS field cases employing the monomyth "hero's journey" classic story structure along with the creation of associated fictional case characters designed to engage readers in the dimensions of human behavior, decision making, and judgments in carrying out the work of the modern corporation. A most fortuitous event in starting the project was the engagement of our research assistant who has a theater academic background and experience as a scriptwriter and director at a repertory theater. Shannon O'Connell noted that our collection of field cases on learning to become a successful functional manager had the potential to be organized into an executive's "hero's journey." This set off a process: (1) completing our field cases to encompass the issue domain of an IT functional manager; (2) recrafting the cases from multiple industries to include one industry; (3) integrating the key characters of monomyth hero's journey; and (4) writing the case dialogue for the protagonist, Jim Barton, hero's journey. The result was our novel-based Harvard Business Press book: Adventures of an IT Leader (2009). In our Adventures book, we experimented with mechanisms to facilitate active learning such as Jim Barton's "living whiteboard," whereby Barton kept a running list of ideas associated with a set of evolving principles of IT management. Another mechanism we used to facilitate reader/student introspection was end-of-chapter/cases Reflections. Also, we experimented with audio versions of book chapters in the classroom. We went on to continue Jim Barton's hero's journey in a second Harvard Business Press book using the same novel format but a different industry and executive context: Harder Than I Thought: Adventures of a Twenty-First Century Leader (2013). The book focuses on CEO leadership in the global economy and the fast-changing IT-enabled pace of business. We extended the mechanism of Barton's living whiteboard to interludes in the book of simulations and avatars to explore CEO decision making.

Paper Information

  • Full Working Paper Text
  • Working Paper Publication Date: September 2013
  • HBS Working Paper Number: 14-026
  • Faculty Unit(s): General Management
  • 16 Feb 2024
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Front matter, an introduction to the corporate social responsibility agenda, the corporate social responsibility notion.

Mark Anthony Camilleri

International Policies and Regulatory Instruments for Non-financial Reporting

Unlocking corporate social responsibility through integrated marketing communication, socially responsible and sustainable investing, responsible supply chain management and stakeholder engagement for corporate reputation, case studies on social and environmental issues in business, case study 1: corporate citizenship and social responsibility policies in america, case study 2: environmental, social and governance reporting in europe, case study 3: the responsible corporate governance of the european banks, case study 4: corporate sustainability and responsibility: creating value in business and education, case study 5: closing the loop of the circular economy for corporate sustainability and responsibility, back matter.

  • social management
  • environmental management
  • CSR reporting
  • responsible corporate governance
  • creating shared value
  • CSR case studies
  • corporate social responsibility
  • sustainability

Dr Mark Anthony Camilleri is a resident academic lecturer in the Department of Corporate Communication. He lectures in an international masters programme run by the University of Malta in collaboration with King’s College, University of London. Mark specialises in strategic management, research and evaluation. He successfully finalised his PhD (Management) in three years’ time at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland - where he was also nominated for his "Excellence in Teaching”. During the past years, Mark taught business subjects at under-graduate, vocational and post-graduate levels in Hong Kong, Malta, Spain, UAE and the UK.

Dr Camilleri has published his research in peer-reviewed journals and chapters. He is a member on the editorial board of Springer's International Journal of Corporate Social Responsibility. He is a frequent speaker and reviewer at the American Marketing Association’s (AMA) Marketing & Public Policy Conference, in the Academy of Management's (AoM) Annual Meeting and at Humboldt’s International CSR Conference. Mark is also a member of the academic advisory committee in the Global Corporate Governance Institute (USA).

Book Title : Corporate Sustainability, Social Responsibility and Environmental Management

Book Subtitle : An Introduction to Theory and Practice with Case Studies

Authors : Mark Anthony Camilleri

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46849-5

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Business and Management , Business and Management (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-319-46848-8 Published: 03 March 2017

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-319-83600-3 Published: 18 July 2018

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-46849-5 Published: 27 February 2017

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XXIII, 195

Topics : Corporate Social Responsibility , Corporate Governance , Sustainability Management

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14 Case studies: theory and practice in natural resource management

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1997, Sustainability and Social …

While presenters had liberty to take a very broad understanding of sustainability, some key themes emerged from the presentations. Not surprisingly, these issues are not much different than the concerns of social sciences generally: issues of power and how it is distributed across gender, class, ethnicity and aboriginality; issues of marginality and disadvantage; issues of structures and institutional processes; and issues of empowerment, learning and social and cultural development. Throughout the papers, there was a strong call for the recognition of the social, and a call to improve the contribution of the social sciences in policy, planning and resource management.

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Reconceptualizing case management in theory and practice: a frontline perspective

Affiliation.

  • 1 The University of Melbourne, Department of General Practice and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
  • PMID: 12184835
  • DOI: 10.1258/095148402320176594

'Case management' in the health and social service sector is controversial, highly political and saturated with conflicting agendas among stakeholders. Research was conducted recently to explore the role of case managers in three evolving, Australian-based, long-term care, case management models. The findings have relevance to countries worldwide that contend with delivering quality care that is cost effective. The research captures the perspectives of 51 open-ended interviews with front-line case managers who have first-hand knowledge of the models' effect on their clients and on their own roles. Contrary to the rhetoric that case management is client-centred, case management is concluded to be 'system centred' based on a unilateral approach taken by each of the three models. Case managers had a limited ability to attain necessary services for clients. Success was dependent on the range of case managers' skills and experience, relationship with the client, degree of job satisfaction, level of influence in the health and social system and ability to collaborate with relevant professionals. The relationship between the three primary influences (system, model, client) affecting case managers' pursuit of achieving appropriate client services was also reviewed. A reconceptualized multidimensional approach, or 'neo-process-centred' case management, is proposed. The revised approach can be applied to existing and new models and has direct implications for policy makers, management and practitioners aspiring to improve client care within existing constraints.

Publication types

  • Evaluation Study
  • Case Management / organization & administration*
  • Health Care Rationing
  • Health Services Research
  • Interviews as Topic
  • Long-Term Care / organization & administration*
  • Models, Organizational
  • National Health Programs
  • Organizational Objectives
  • Patient-Centered Care*
  • Professional Role*
  • Professional-Patient Relations*

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Case Studies

Chapter 1: Case Study

Aerospace canada corporation project selection .

You work as a Human Resources Manager for Aerospace Canada Corporation (ACC).  Your company is a Canadian nonprofit corporation that operates federally funded research and development.  You provide technical advice on space missions to the Canadian military. You work closely with the ARC Space Force and the National Space Office.  You provide technical analysis and assessments for space programs that serves Canada’s interests.

The company has 5 Chief Executive Officers, 10 Board of Trustees,  8 Research and Development employees, 20 Space Systems employees, 15 Performance Engineers, 20 Classified IT Design Engineers,  10 Electrical engineers, 7 Information Systems Security Officers, 5 Technical Software Engineers, 14 Cyber Systems Engineers, 10 Buyers, 5 Systems Directors, 12 Program Assistants, 8 Quality Assurance Engineers, 4 Remote Sensing Scientists, 20 Project Leaders, 12 Human Resources Specialists, 5 Administrative Accounting Specialists, 32 Administrative Support employees.

ACC has over 400 projects that are funding each year.  They have used several models in the past for project selection to meet their goals and respecting their budgets and resource constraints, and minimizing risk. The business development and research team are responsible for reviewing all the projects and selecting the optimal portfolio for the upcoming year. In the past, the focus has always been on maximum returns on the budget and to remain at or above the market norms.   These decisions reflected a priority based on sales only.

ACC is looking to implement a new strategy for project selection. It has been discussed that the business development and research team should not be involved with the project selection.  However, no one knows exactly who should be involved, how to set up a new system, or who should be making these important decisions for ACC.

You are the Human Resources Manager of ACC.  You have been privy to the information that has been shared at the executive level.  You believe that you can have an impact on the project selection that will support the goals of honouring sales, while providing growth, reducing risk, and maximizing profits.

  • Who would you speak to at ACC to show your interest?
  • How would you go about marketing your HR department to help with this task?
  • What would be included in your proposal to spear head this plan?
  • Who would you involve in the project selection process?

Chapter 1: Case Study Copyright © 2022 by Debra Patterson. All Rights Reserved.

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