Piaget’s Stages: 4 Stages of Cognitive Development & Theory

Piaget's Stages

You’re trying to explain something to a child, and even though it seems so obvious to you, the child just doesn’t seem to understand.

They repeat the same mistake, over and over, and you become increasingly frustrated.

Well, guess what?

  • The child is not naughty.
  • They’re also not stupid.
  • But their lack of understanding is not your fault either.

Their cognitive development limits their ability to understand certain concepts. Specifically, they’re not capable right now of understanding what you’re trying to explain.

In this post, we’ll learn more about Jean Piaget, a famous psychologist whose ideas about cognitive development in children were extremely influential. We’ll cover quite a lot in this post, so make sure you have a cup of coffee and you’re sitting somewhere comfortable.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

Who was jean piaget in psychology, piaget’s cognitive development theory, 1. the sensorimotor stage, 2. the preoperational stage, 3. the concrete operational stage, 4. the formal operational stage, piaget’s theory vs erikson’s, 5 important concepts in piaget’s work, applications in education (+3 classroom games), positivepsychology.com’s relevant resources, a take-home message.

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who contributed greatly to the understanding of children’s cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

He was born in 1896 and originally trained as a biologist and philosopher. Although he is well known for his work as a psychologist, he also published research on sparrows and mollusks (Burman, 2012; Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

Piaget’s contribution to psychology was mainly through his observations of children’s cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Early in his career, Piaget scored the IQ tests that Alfred Binet administered to children.

Piaget noticed that children of certain ages tended to give the same types of incorrect answers. From these observations and follow-up interviews with children about these mistakes, he developed a theory of how children’s cognitive processes developed (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

One of the most important implications of his work is that children are not born with the same cognitive processes as adults (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Instead, children’s cognitive processes:

  • develop over time,
  • develop in response to their environment, and
  • are updated with exposure to new information.

Piaget also influenced psychology in other ways. For example, he emphasized other methods of conducting research, such as the clinical method (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). He relied upon the following research methods:

  • Naturalistic observation of play and conversation between children (including his own)
  • Interviewing children

Additionally, he was the first psychologist to study ‘theory of mind’ in children (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Theory of mind is the understanding or basic sense that each of us has our own consciousness and thoughts.

Cognitive Development Theory

Specifically, he posited that as children’s thinking develops from one stage to the next, their behavior also changes, reflecting these cognitive developments.

The stages in his theory follow a specific order, and each subsequent stage only occurs after the one before it.

These stages are:

  • Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years old)
  • Preoperational stage (2–7 years old)
  • Concrete operational stage (7–11 years old)
  • Formal operational stage (11 years old through adulthood)

The sensorimotor stage is the first phase of children’s cognitive development. During this stage, children primarily learn about their environment through their senses and motor activities.

The sensorimotor stage comprises six substages, where children’s behavior moves from being reflex driven to more abstract. Each substage is described briefly.

1. Use of reflexes (0–2 months)

During this stage, children typically use their reflexes. They cannot consolidate information from their sensory organs into a single, unified concept.

2. Primary circular reactions (1–4 months)

Children start to consolidate information from different sensory organs. They start to engage in behavior that satisfies the way their body feels or their needs. For example, they repeat pleasurable behaviors, and they adapt their behavior to feed from different objects. They turn to respond to sounds and sights in their environment.

3. Secondary circular reactions (4–8 months)

Children’s behaviors become more intentional, and the types of behaviors that they repeat expand to include those that result in interesting responses external to their body. For example, they might push buttons on a toy. Children also start to take more interest in their environment. They repeat behaviors that generate interesting responses.

4. Coordination of secondary schemes (8–12 months)

At this point, children’s behaviors become more goal oriented, and they can combine different behaviors to achieve goals.

5. Tertiary circular reactions (12–18 months)

Instead of performing the same actions, children try new behaviors and actions to achieve different results. These behaviors are not spontaneous or by accident, but are purposeful. Unlike primary and secondary reactions, children can combine more complicated behaviors and even perform a behavior similarly but not the same to get the desired result.

6. Mental combinations (18–24 months)

Children start to rely on mental abstractions to solve problems, use gestures and words to communicate, and can pretend. Instead of relying on numerous attempts to solve problems/puzzles, children can deliberate and carefully choose their actions.

Preoperational Stage

At the age of two, children enter the preoperational stage, where their ability to use mental representations, rather than the physical appearance of objects or people, improves greatly.

Examples of abstract representations include engaging in pretend play and talking about events that happened in the past or people who are not currently in the room.

Other interesting cognitive advances occur during this phase. For example, children understand causality. Children also understand identities, where items and people remain the same even if they look different. For example, at some point during this stage, a caregiver dressing up as Santa Claus might not be as convincing.

In this stage, children also learn more about categorization. They can classify items based on similarities or differences. They also start to understand numbers and quantity (e.g., concepts such as ‘more’ or ‘bigger’).

Although abstract thought advances quickly in the preoperational stage, other cognitive processes develop more slowly.

For example:

  • Children tend to consider their own viewpoint and perspective.
  • Children fail to understand that two things can be the same, even if they appear different (more about this in the next section on Conservation).
  • Children struggle to take someone else’s point of view.

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The next phase is the concrete operational stage, which begins around the age of seven. During this stage, children are more capable of solving problems because they can consider numerous outcomes and perspectives. All of their cognitive abilities are better developed in this stage.

  • Categorization abilities improve so that children can arrange items along a dimension, understand that categories have subcategories, and relate two objects to each other through a third object.
  • Their numerical abilities improve a lot, and they can perform more complicated mathematical operations.
  • Their spatial abilities are better. They are better at estimating time and distance. They can read maps and describe how to navigate from one location to another.

Conservation

During this stage, children understand the concept of conservation better and, as a result, are better at solving conservation problems. Conservation refers to the idea that things can be the same, even if they look different.

An example would be a cup of water poured into two glasses. One glass is tall and thin, while the other is short and wide. Recognizing that both glasses contain the same amount of water shows an understanding of conservation.

Children in the preoperational stage struggle with problems of conservation. For example, they struggle with tasks where the following is conserved even it appears different:

  • Number of items (e.g., two sets of 10 items arranged differently)
  • The volume of liquid (e.g., the same volume of liquid in two differently shaped glasses)

Children struggle with conservation because they can only focus on one dimension at a time; this is known as centering. For example, with the volume of liquid, they can only consider the shape of the glass, but not the shape of the glass and the volume of water.

They also do not yet understand reversibility. Irreversibility refers to a child’s inability to reverse the steps of an action in their mind, returning an object to its previous state. For example, pouring the water out of the glass back into the original cup would demonstrate the volume of the water, but children in the preoperational stage cannot understand this.

In contrast, children in the concrete operational stage can solve conservation problems. This is because children now have the following cognitive abilities:

  • They understand reversibility (i.e., items can be returned to original states).
  • They can decenter (i.e., concentrate on multiple dimensions of items, rather than just one).
  • They better understand identity (i.e., an item remains the same even if it looks different).

Formal Operational Stage

Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think about abstract concepts and are not limited to a current time, person, or situation.

They can think about hypothetical situations and various possibilities, like situations that don’t exist yet, may never exist, or might be unrealistic and fantastical.

During this stage, children are capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which allows them to test hypotheses and draw conclusions from the results. Unlike younger children who haphazardly approach problems, children in the formal operational stage can apply their reasoning skills to apply more complicated problems in a systematic, logical manner.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is one of several theories about how children develop. Other contrasting theories include Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, and importantly for this post, Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development.

Differences

Unlike Piaget, who focused on cognitive development, Erikson emphasized healthy ego development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Healthy egos are developed when people resolve specific personality issues at set periods in their lives.

Specifically, each developmental stage is characterized by two conflicting personality traits, one positive and one negative. Successful resolution occurs when the positive trait is more emphasized than the other, resulting in the development of a virtue, which aids healthy resolution of subsequent stages.

As an example, between 12 and 18 months, children experience two feelings: trust and mistrust. If they resolve this crisis by balancing a healthy level of trust with mistrust, then they develop the virtue of ‘hope.’

Overall, Erikson proposed eight personality crises, five of which occur before the age of 18:

  • Basic trust versus mistrust ( 0–12/18 months)
  • Autonomy versus shame and doubt (12/18 months–3 years)
  • Initiative versus guilt (3–6 years)
  • Industry versus inferiority (6 years–puberty)
  • Identity versus identity confusion (puberty–young adulthood)

Not all of the developmental stages in Erikson’s theory correspond to the cognitive stages proposed by Piaget. For example, Piaget’s preoperational stages overlap with the second and third stages in Erikson’s theories.

Similarities

Like Piaget, Erikson also emphasized that children’s development occurs through interacting with the external environment, but Erikson’s stages focus more on societal influences. Both Piaget and Erikson emphasized that children are active participants in their world and that development occurs in stages.

Schemas and constructivism

Schemas and constructivism

Piaget argued that children learn about the world by interacting with it. This notion of gaining knowledge about the world is known as constructivism (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

Through their interactions, children construct schemas – or cognitive patterns – about how the world works (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). These schemas come about through organization, which is how categories are formed, organizing items together based on common characteristics.

According to Piaget schemas can then be repeated and tested. For example, an infant has a schema about a rattle: shake it, and it makes a noise.

Importantly, schemas are not static, and they can be improved and updated with new information. When children learn new information, they do not disregard their previous schemas; instead, they build upon them. As a result, children’s cognitive development happens in stages as schemas are continuously updated with new information.

Adaptation describes how children update their current cognitive organizations and schemas with new information. Adaptation takes place in two ways: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

Assimilation describes how children incorporate new information into existing schemas. For example, a child refers to dogs as ‘woofs.’ When they see a cat for the first time, they refer to the cat as a ‘woof’ too.

Accommodation

Accommodation describes how children adapt their cognitive structures to match new information in the world. Continuing with the previous example, the child realizes that dogs and cats are different. The child updates their cognitive schema of the world, and now refers to cats as ‘cats’ and dogs as ‘woofs’.

Equilibrium

Piaget’s background as a biologist influenced some of his work, notably the concept of ‘equilibrium,’ which resembles homeostasis (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). He posited that children’s cognitive processes are aimed toward equilibrium. When children learn new information that is at odds with their current schemas, they are in an undesirable state of disequilibrium.

To achieve equilibrium, children adapt their mental instructions by:

  • Assimilating new information
  • Accommodating new information by updating their cognitive schemas

By achieving equilibrium, children learn new information.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

One premise of constructivism is that knowledge about the world is gained and made sense of through active participation. In other words, children are not passive recipients of knowledge. They’re not empty vessels waiting to be filled with knowledge. Instead, children’s knowledge is generated when they interact with the world (Yilmaz, 2008).

Some of the education implications of this concept are that children cannot be expected to ‘just sit down and learn’ and that teaching methods that emphasize passive learning are discouraged.

An example of passive learning is reading a text without engaging with it, debating with it, or trying to connect it to real life. Instead, teaching rooted in Piaget’s theories emphasizes that children learn by interacting. Here are some examples:

  • Physical interaction (e.g., seeing and touching insects when learning about them)
  • Verbal interaction (e.g., talking about how new learning material connects to everyday experiences)
  • Abstract interaction (e.g., thinking about new ideas, wrestling with difficult or challenging topics, imitating or acting out concepts/ideas/people)

Play theory

Piaget (1951) argued that play is vital for children’s learning. Play is an example of assimilation, and imitation is an example of accommodation.

He argued that there are three types of games that children can play based on their cognitive development:

  • Practice games
  • Symbolic games
  • Games with rules

Practice games include the repetition of a particular set of actions for pure enjoyment. Although it might not seem like much, these practice games are very important for cognitive development.

Symbolic games involve make-believe scenarios and characters, and appear during the preoperational stage.

Rule-based games appear later during the concrete operational stage. As well as abstract elements, these games also include rules and consequences for violating them.

Classroom games

It’s important to tailor classroom games to match the overall development stage of the children.

For very young children in the sensorimotor stage, classroom games that rely on repetition and interesting results are best. In these games, the child repeatedly demonstrates a new skill or behavior that they have learned, reinforcing the behavior . Examples include splashing water, kicking leaves, shaking a rattle or toys, and playing with music instruments.

For children in the preoperational stage, classroom games that involve imitation are useful ways to teach new concepts. For example, children can learn about animals by pretending to be different animals (e.g., ‘roar like a lion,’ ‘jump like a frog’).

Children can also learn about social skills and social interactions by acting out certain social situations, like pretending to be a shopkeeper. Symbolic games are also used when children pretend one item is something else; for example, pretending that a stick is a lightsaber.

Rule-based games are more suitable for older children. These games can teach concepts like theory of mind, because they encourage decentering (DeVries & Kamii, 1975).

For example, in ‘Simon Says,’ children learn to watch the teacher and know that if they don’t follow the teacher, they are out. Typically, young children don’t understand rule-based games and are not good at counting or numbers.

This is why, for example, very young children don’t understand that there is a penalty for one child in ‘Musical Chairs’ (DeVries & Kamii, 1975). Young children will enjoy the game if the penalty is removed and the chairs stay the same.

Other ways that games can facilitate learning is by allowing children to make up the rules (DeVries & Kamii, 1975). New toys related to the concepts that they’re learning about should be available when children engage in unstructured play without the assistance of the teacher.

For more on this, we recommend reading our article How to Promote Cognitive Development: 23 Activities & Games .

At PositivePsychology.com, you’ll find lots of exercises, tasks, and activities that you can use in the classroom. We’ve highlighted these two as examples.

The Nice Things tool is useful in teaching children compassion. Children are encouraged to recall something ‘nice.’ It could be something nice that happened to them or something nice that they did. Children are also encouraged to share these nice things with each other and the class.

Since this task requires that children have mental/abstract representations of other people and things, it is more applicable for children in the preoperational and concrete operational stages.

In the Shuffle game, children learn how to resolve conflict. In this game, the play area is marked out with a set of items. Each child starts at one item, and an extra player is in the middle. At the start of the game, children have to move to another item.

However, if two children reach the same item simultaneously, they resolve this by playing Rock–Paper–Scissors. Since this is a rule-based game, it is best suited to children in the concrete operational stage; younger children will not understand the consequences of losing Rock–Paper–Scissors.

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Knowing that children’s learning and understanding are limited by their cognitive development, what can you do the next time you explain something?

  • Use simple, age-appropriate examples.
  • Explain concepts simply, considering the limitations of each cognitive stage.
  • Encourage discussion and creativity so that they create meaningful interactions and memories.

Most importantly, remember that children are not born as ‘mini-adults.’ They do not have adult cognitive abilities, and they do not have the lifetime of experiences for these abilities to develop.

Instead, to learn, they need to participate actively with their world and the people in it. They must be exposed to new experiences and information for learning to occur, and importantly, they must have the opportunities to make mistakes.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

  • Burman, J. T. (2012). Jean Piaget: Images of a life and his factory. History of Psychology , 15 (3), 283–288.
  • DeVries, R., & Kamii, C. (1975). Why group games? A Piagetian perspective . ERIC Clearinghouse.
  • Papalia, D. E., & Feldman, R. D. (2011). A child’s world: Infancy through adolescence  (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
  • Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood (vol. 25). Routledge.
  • Waite-Stupiansky, S. (2017). Jean Piaget’s constructivist theory of learning. In L. E. Cohen & S. Waite-Stupiansky (Eds.), Theories of early childhood education: Developmental, behaviorist, and critical (pp. 3–17). Routledge.
  • Yilmaz, K. (2008). Constructivism: Its theoretical underpinnings, variations, and implications for classroom instruction. Educational Horizons , 86 (3), 161–172.

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Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage: Definition & Examples

Saul Mcleod, PhD

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BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve and lasts into adulthood. As adolescents enter this stage, they can think abstractly by manipulating ideas in their head, without any dependence on concrete manipulation (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958).

In the formal operational stage, children tend to reason more abstractly, systematically, and reflectively. They are more likely to use logic to reason out the possible consequences of each action before carrying it out.

He/she can do mathematical calculations, think creatively, use abstract reasoning, and imagine the outcome of particular actions.

An example of the distinction between concrete and formal operational stages is the answer to the question, “If Kelly is taller than Ali and Ali is taller than Jo, who is tallest?”

This is an example of inferential reasoning, which is the ability to think about things which the child has not actually experienced and to draw conclusions from its thinking.

The child who needs to draw a picture or use objects is still in the concrete operational stage , whereas children who can reason the answer in their heads are using formal operational thinking.

Formal Operational Thought

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning.

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is the ability to think scientifically through generating predictions, or hypotheses, about the world to answer questions.

The individual will approach problems in a systematic and organized manner rather than through trial-and-error.

A teenager can consider “what if” scenarios, like imagining the future consequences of climate change based on current trends.

Abstract Thought

Concrete operations are carried out on things, whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Individuals can think about hypothetical and abstract concepts they have yet to experience. Abstract thought is important for planning the future.

A student understands and manipulates concepts like justice, love, and freedom without needing concrete examples or experiences. For instance, they can comprehend and discuss a statement such as “Justice is not always fair.”

Scientific Reasoning

An example of formal operational thought could be the cognitive ability to plan and test different solutions to a problem systematically, a process often referred to as “scientific thinking.”

formal operational stage

The ability to form hypotheses, conduct experiments, analyze results, and use deductive reasoning is an example of formal operational thought.

A student forms a hypothesis about a science experiment, predicts potential outcomes, systematically tests the hypothesis, and then analyzes the results.

For example, they could hypothesize that increasing sunlight exposure will increase a plant’s rate of growth, design an experiment to test this, and then understand and explain the results.

Metacognition

Adolescents can think about their own thought processes, reflecting on how they learn best or understanding why they might have made a mistake in judgment.

For example, they might realize that they rush decisions when they’re feeling stressed and plan to use stress-reducing techniques before making important decisions in the future.

Testing Formal Operations

Piaget (1970) devised several tests of formal operational thought. One of the simplest was the “third eye problem”.  Children were asked where they would put an extra eye, if they could have a third one, and why.

Schaffer (1988) reported that when asked this question, 9-year-olds all suggested that the third eye should be on the forehead.  However, 11-year-olds were more inventive, suggesting that a third eye placed on the hand would be useful for seeing round corners.

Formal operational thinking has also been tested experimentally using the pendulum task (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). The method involved a length of string and a set of weights. Participants had to consider three factors (variables) the length of the string, the heaviness of the weight, and the strength of the push.

The task was to work out which factor was most important in determining the speed of swing of the pendulum.

Participants can vary the length of the pendulum string, and vary the weight. They can measure the pendulum speed by counting the number of swings per minute.

To find the correct answer, the participant has to grasp the idea of the experimental method -that is to vary one variable at a time (e.g., trying different lengths with the same weight). A participant who tries different lengths with different weights will likely end up with the wrong answer.

Children in the formal operational stage approached the task systematically, testing one variable (such as varying the string length) at a time to see its effect. However, younger children typically tried out these variations randomly or changed two things simultaneously.

Piaget concluded that the systematic approach indicated that children were thinking logically, in the abstract, and could see the relationships between things. These are the characteristics of the formal operational stage.

Critical Evaluation

Psychologists who have replicated this research, or used a similar problem, have generally found that children cannot complete the task successfully until they are older.

Robert Siegler (1979) gave children a balance beam task in which some discs were placed on either side of the center of balance. The researcher changed the number of discs or moved them along the beam, each time asking the child to predict which way the balance would go.

He studied the answers given by children from five years upwards, concluding that they apply rules which develop in the same sequence as, and thus reflect, Piaget’s findings.

Like Piaget, he found that eventually, the children were able to take into account the interaction between the weight of the discs and the distance from the center, and so successfully predict balance. However, this did not happen until participants were between 13 and 17 years of age.

He concluded that children’s cognitive development is based on acquiring and using rules in increasingly more complex situations, rather than in stages.

Learning Check

Which of the following is/are not an indication of an individual being in the formal operational stage?

Mark often struggles with planning for the future. He can’t envision different possible outcomes based on his actions. Which of the following is true about Mark? a. He is in the Formal Operational stage. b. He is in the Preoperational stage. c. He is in the Concrete Operational stage. d. He is in the Sensorimotor stage.

Which of the following actions does NOT indicate that Lucy is in the Formal Operational stage? a. Lucy can think about abstract concepts like justice and fairness. b. Lucy enjoys debates and discussions where she can express her thoughts. c. Lucy can only solve problems that are concrete and immediately present. d. Lucy enjoys conducting experiments to test her hypotheses.

Sam can play with his friends and imagine what they think about him. However, he can’t conceptualize different outcomes of a hypothetical situation. What stage is Sam likely in? a. He is in the Formal Operational stage. b. He is in the Preoperational stage. c. He is in the Concrete Operational stage. d. He is in the Sensorimotor stage.

  • (b) He is in the Preoperational stage.
  • (c) Lucy can only solve problems that are concrete and immediately present.
  • (c) He is in the Concrete Operational stage.

According to Jean Piaget, in what stage do children begin to use abstract thinking processes?

According to Jean Piaget, children begin to use abstract thinking processes in the Formal Operational stage, which typically develops between 12 and adulthood.

In this stage, children develop the capacity for abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning. They no longer rely solely on concrete experiences or objects in their immediate environment for understanding. Instead, they can imagine realities outside their own and consider various possibilities and perspectives.

They can formulate hypotheses, consider potential outcomes, and plan systematic approaches for problem-solving. Additionally, they can understand and manipulate abstract ideas such as moral reasoning, logic, and theoretical concepts in mathematics or science.

Based on Piaget’s theory, what should a teacher provide in the formal operational stage?

Based on Piaget’s theory, a teacher should provide the following for students in the Formal Operational stage:

Abstract Problems and Hypothetical Tasks : Encourage students to think abstractly and solve complex problems. Provide tasks that require logical reasoning, hypothesizing, and the consideration of multiple variables.

Opportunities for Debate and Discussion : Encourage students to express their thoughts and challenge the views of others. This can help them learn to view problems from multiple perspectives.

Experiments : Design lessons to allow students to develop hypotheses and conduct experiments. The scientific method is a valuable tool at this stage.

Real-world Applications : Connect classroom learning to real-world scenarios. This can help students understand the relevance and application of abstract ideas.

Higher-order Questions : Use questions involving analysis, synthesis, and evaluation to improve students’ critical thinking skills.

Guidance in Self-reflection : Encourage students to reflect on their thoughts, emotions, and behavior, which can help them understand their own cognitive processes better.

Moral and Ethical Discussions : As students in this stage begin to think more about abstract concepts such as justice, fairness, and rights, engage them in discussions around moral and ethical issues.

Piaget’s formal operational stage begins around age 11 or 12 and continues throughout adulthood. Does this suggest that once one reaches this level of cognitive development, they plateau? or are there different levels of formal operations?

According to Piaget’s theory, once individuals reach the Formal Operational stage, they have attained the highest level of cognitive development, as defined by his model. However, this does not suggest a cognitive plateau.

Cognitive development is individual and influenced by a range of factors beyond mere biological maturation.

The nature of human cognition is such that there’s always room for refinement, growth, and development throughout adulthood.

Furthermore, individual competence can vary greatly within the Formal Operational stage. For instance, a person might employ formal operational thinking in one area of life (such as their professional specialization) but not others.

Similarly, skills like problem-solving, logical reasoning, and handling abstract concepts can continue to improve with practice and experience.

Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). Adolescent thinking.

Piaget, J. (1970). Science of education and the psychology of the child . Trans. D. Coltman.

Schaffer, H. R. (1988). Child Psychology: the future. In S. Chess & A. Thomas (eds), Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development . NY: Brunner/Mazel.

Siegler, R. S. & Richards, D. (1979). Development of time, speed and distance concepts. Developmental Psychology, 15 , 288-298.

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Formal Operational Stage - Piaget's 4th Stage (Examples)

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Would you say that you think abstractly? Do you think about the “bigger picture?” I don’t mean thinking about your life 10 years in the future. I mean thinking about the purpose of existence and why humans have evolved as we have. We’re not tackling all of these questions today, but we will talk about how we came to ask them and how we answer them.

Children in elementary or middle school typically do not possess these skills. Until children reach the formal operational stage in Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, they go through three concrete development stages that only allow them to think concretely. They can follow the rules of how the world works but are limited by these concrete concepts.

What Is the Formal Operational Stage?

Once children reach adolescence, they enter the Formal Operational Stage. This is the last stage in Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. The Formal Operational Stage doesn’t end - there are ways that you can heighten your abstract problem-solving skills from age 12 to age 112! 

The formal operational stage begins between around 11-12. Children are usually in grade school around this time. They can take on more responsibilities than they did in earlier stages of development, but they are still considered young children. Health organizations still categorize ages 11 and 12 as "middle childhood."

Entering the Formal Operational Stage

Children ages 11 and 12 have just finished the concrete operational stage. This stage lasts from ages 6-11. By the time a child enters the formal operational stage, they should be able to:

  • Arrange items in a logical order
  • Build friendships based on empathy
  • Understand that 5mL of water in one glass is the same amount as 5mL of water in a separate glass
  • Recognize that a ball of pizza dough is the same as flattened pizza dough

Playing games and doing science experiments with children is much more fun at this age. They understand so much more!

During this stage, individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and solve problems in a systematic manner. Here are 14 examples of behaviors and thought processes that are characteristic of the formal operational stage:

  • Hypothetical Thinking : The ability to consider hypothetical situations and possibilities. For instance, a teenager might ponder, "What would happen if the sun never rose?"
  • Abstract Thought : Thinking about concepts not directly tied to concrete experiences, such as justice, love, or morality.
  • Systematic Problem Solving : When faced with a problem, individuals can systematically test potential solutions. For example, if a science experiment doesn't produce the expected result, a student might change one variable at a time to determine which one is responsible.
  • Metacognition : The ability to think about one's own thought processes. Students might reflect on how they study best or recognize when they do not understand a concept.
  • Moral Reasoning : Moving beyond black-and-white thinking to consider the nuances of moral dilemmas. For instance, understanding that stealing is generally wrong but pondering whether it's justified if someone is stealing food to feed their starving family.
  • Scientific Reasoning : Formulating hypotheses and conducting experiments in a methodical manner to test them.
  • Understanding Sarcasm and Metaphors : Recognizing that the phrase "It's raining cats and dogs" doesn't mean animals are falling from the sky.
  • Planning for the Future : Considering future possibilities and making plans based on them, such as choosing college courses based on a desired future career.
  • Evaluating the Quality of Information : Recognizing the difference between opinion and fact or understanding that just because something is on the internet doesn't make it true.
  • Logical Thought : Thinking logically and methodically, even about abstract concepts. For example, if all roses are flowers and some flowers fade quickly, then some roses fade quickly.
  • Considering Multiple Perspectives : Understanding that others might have a different point of view and trying to see things from their perspective.
  • Propositional Thought : Understanding that a statement can be logical based solely on the information provided, even if it's untrue. For instance, "If all dogs can fly and Fido is a dog, then Fido can fly" is logically sound, even though we know dogs can't fly.
  • Complex Classification : Classifying objects based on multiple characteristics. For example, organizing books by both genre and author.
  • Understanding Abstract Relationships : Recognizing relationships like "If A is greater than B, and B is greater than C, then A is greater than C."

What Characterizes the Formal Operational Stage?

Four specific skills are signs that a child is in the formal operational stage:

Deductive Reasoning

Abstract thought, problem-solving.

  • Metacognition

The child learns to apply logic to certain situations during the Concrete Operational Stage . But they are limited to inductive reasoning. In the Formal Operational Stage, they start to learn (and learn the limits of) deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning uses observations to make a conclusion. Say a student has six teachers throughout their life, all strict. They are likely to conclude that all teachers are strict. They may find that later in life, they will change their conclusion, but until they observe a teacher who is not strict, this is the conclusion they will come to.

Deductive reasoning works differently. It uses facts and lessons to create a conclusion. The child will be presented with two facts:

“All teachers are strict.”

“Mr. Johnson is a teacher.”

Using deductive reasoning, the child can conclude that Mr. Johnson is strict.

deduction vs induction

Throughout the child’s development, they start to expand their world. In the sensorimotor stage, their world consists of only what is directly in front of them. If something is out of sight or earshot, it no longer exists.

As they develop object permanence, they understand that the world exists beyond what they can physically see, hear, or touch. In the concrete operational stage, children begin to apply the rules of logic to things and rules they know exist.

In this final stage, they begin to expand their worldview further. They begin to develop abstract thought. They can apply logic to situations that don’t follow the rules of the physical world.

Piaget's Third Eye Question: The Difference Between Concrete Operational and Formal Operational Stages

child thinking about their third eye

One of the ways that Piaget tested this skill was to ask the children questions. Here’s an example of a question that Piaget asked children:

“If you had a third eye, where would you put it?” 

Children in the Concrete Operational Stage were limited to answering that they would put the eye on their forehead or face. They were typically only exposed to animals and humans with eyes on their faces. But children in the Formal Operational Stage were likelier to branch out and think of more useful and abstract answers. They considered putting the eye on their hand, back, or elsewhere where it would serve a greater purpose.

These skills make solving problems a whole lot easier. Children can only solve problems through trial and error in the Concrete Operational Stage and earlier stages. As they enter the Formal Operational Stage, they can look back at the problem, use past experience and reasoning to form a hypothesis, and test out what they believe will happen. This can save them a lot of time.

children problem solving

To determine when children had developed these skills, Piaget used another testing method. He gave them a scale with a set of weights and asked them to balance the scale with the weights. But simply putting the same amount of weight on each side wasn’t enough. The children had to determine that the distance between the weights and the scale's center also impacted the balance.

Children under the age of 10 heavily struggled with the task because they could not understand the concept of balance (if they were in the Preoperational Stage) or could not grasp that the center of balance is also important. (These children were in the early stages of the Concrete Operational Stage.) At age 10, the children could solve the problem, but at a much slower pace due to their process of trial and error.

It wasn’t until age 11 or 12 that children could look at the problem from a distance and use logic to use both the distance and size of the weights to balance the scale.

MetaCognition

Not all of these thought processes are perfect the first time around. You know that I know that, and children in the Formal Operational Stage are just starting to discover that. By using MetaCognition, they are more likely to assess their thinking and transform it into a more effective form of problem-solving.

MetaCognition is simply “thinking about thinking.” It is the ability to run through your own thought process, figure out how you developed that process, and maybe unwind some things that aren’t logical or can be disproven. This can help you “rebuild” your thought process as if it were building blocks, creating a more solid structure for you to solve problems.

Piaget did not actually coin this term while developing his theory on the Formal Operational Stage. John Flavell, an American psychologist, actually proposed the theory on MetaCognition in the late 1970s.

We’ve seen throughout these videos that the Theory of Cognitive Development has continued to grow and change with additional input and studies. Our minds can also change their thought processes and begin to notice imperfections and flawed logic as they come up. But this often requires going back and asking yourself how you built certain thought processes and where you could have made flawed conclusions.

How to Support a Child in the Formal Operational Stage

Children in the formal operational stage (typically 12 years and older) begin thinking more abstractly and logically, engaging in hypothetical reasoning and considering multiple variables in problem-solving. To best support and nurture their cognitive development outside of school, consider these activity suggestions:

  • Play Strategic Board Games: Introduce games that require planning, strategizing, and critical thinking. Games like chess, Risk, Settlers of Catan, and Ticket to Ride can enhance their deductive reasoning and promote patience. These games also often require players to predict opponents' moves, honing their skills in understanding perspectives.
  • Engage in Thought Experiments: Stimulate abstract thinking by posing hypothetical questions. Asking imaginative yet thought-provoking questions like, "If you could invent a new school subject, what would it be and why?" or "How would our lives change if we had no electricity for a year?" can spark interesting discussions and foster creativity.
  • Encourage Scientific Experiments: Let them set up a mini-lab at home. Whether it's a simple vinegar and baking soda reaction or a more complex examination of plant growth under different conditions, hands-on experiments can solidify their understanding of cause and effect.
  • Delve into Philosophy and Ethics: Discuss moral dilemmas or philosophical conundrums suitable for their age. Questions like, "Is it ever okay to lie?" or "What makes something 'right' or 'wrong'?" can challenge them to consider multiple viewpoints and refine their moral reasoning.
  • Read and Analyze Stories Together: Choose books or movies with deeper themes or complex characters. Discuss the motives, the plot's implications, or any symbolism. This improves their comprehension skills and teaches them to think critically about media.
  • Involve Them in Real-Life Problem-Solving: Whether planning a family trip, budgeting for a big purchase, or deciding on the best route for a journey, including them in the process can provide practical applications for their developing logical reasoning skills.
  • Respect and Respond to Their Queries: Children at this stage are brimming with questions, many of which can be profound or reflective. When they approach you with a query, respond with patience and logic. If you don't know the answer, consider researching it together. This collaborative approach provides them with information and models a proactive attitude toward learning.

By actively engaging with children in these ways, parents and caregivers can provide invaluable support as they navigate the challenges and opportunities of the formal operational stage.

Formal Operational Stage vs. Other Stages of Development

Jean Piaget is not the only psychologist to create stages of development. Other psychologists have offered their theories on how a child develops social skills and how their experiences during each stage impact their relationships and behavior. Some theories, like Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, last for the span of the person's life. Other theories, like Piaget's, only cover childhood and early adolescence. When we compare Piaget's theory to other theories, we see some overlap and other perspectives on what makes a child the person they grow up to be.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

At ages 11-12, a child exits the Industry vs. Inferiority stage and enters the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage. The child should be aware that they are responsible for their own decisions and how they affect others. They also start to see that they are different from other children. They will successfully exit these stages if they feel confident that they can advocate for themselves and live the way they want. Otherwise, they may develop insecurities. Erikson coined the term "identity crisis." This crisis could take place in the identity vs. role confusion stage!

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

During the ages of 11-12, a child is in the latent stage of psychosexual development and may be entering the genital stage. The change in stages all depends on when the child goes through puberty. Freud's controversial stages focused on a child's erogenous zones and sexual interests. As the child discovers sexual interests in the latent stage, they must learn to channel their energy into intellectual activities. The child can form healthy relationships by letting the superego tame the id. In the genital stage, teenagers and adults learn to explore their maturing sexual interests.

Which Theory is "Right?"

All these theories can play out simultaneously, but remember, these are just theories. Some ideas, like Freud's Oedipal Complex that occurred in earlier stages of development, have been discredited and largely rejected by today's psychologists. We continue to learn about Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, and other psychologists to understand how psychology developed into the field we know today.

Thanks for checking out these pages on the Theory of Cognitive Development! I hope these will allow you to look at your own thinking and build a stronger foundation for solving problems and understanding the world around you - no matter how old you are!

Piaget's Influence on Modern Educational Practices

Jean Piaget's groundbreaking theories on cognitive development have left an indelible mark on the realm of education. Even today, educators worldwide employ strategies rooted in Piaget's insights. Here's how Piaget’s theories continue to shape contemporary educational practices:

  • Active Learning: Piaget emphasized the importance of active learning. He believed children learn best when interacting with their environment and manipulating objects. This belief has shifted from passive rote memorization to hands-on, experiential learning. Schools often incorporate field trips, lab experiments, and interactive activities to facilitate this.
  • Developmentally Appropriate Practices: Recognizing that children progress through specific stages of cognitive development, educators design curricula tailored to these stages. For instance, in the pre-operational stage (2-7 years), children benefit from using concrete objects and visuals. Meanwhile, older children in the formal operational stage (12 years and up) are more equipped for abstract thinking and can engage in more complex problem-solving tasks.
  • Focus on the Process, Not Just the Outcome: Piaget believed that the process of thinking and the journey of arriving at an answer are just as necessary as the answer itself. This philosophy has encouraged educators to value and assess how students approach problems, not just the correctness of their answers.
  • Peer Interaction: Piaget felt that peer interaction is crucial for cognitive development. He observed that children often learn best when discussing, debating, and collaborating with classmates. Group work, cooperative learning, and classroom discussions are now staples in many classrooms, promoting social interaction as a valuable learning tool.
  • Incorporating Real-life Situations: To make learning meaningful, Piaget suggested relating it to real-life situations. This has led to problem-based learning and the inclusion of real-world issues in the curriculum, ensuring that students see the relevance and applicability of their learning.
  • Role of the Teacher: In line with Piaget's theories, the teacher's role has evolved from the traditional "sage on the stage" to more of a "guide on the side." Teachers now often act as facilitators, providing resources, posing guiding questions, and helping students make their discoveries.
  • Assessment Practices: Piaget's emphasis on stages of cognitive development has led to more nuanced and stage-sensitive assessment methods. Teachers are more attuned to the developmental readiness of their students, ensuring that assessments are appropriate for their cognitive level.
  • Constructivist Classrooms: Stemming from Piaget's idea that learners construct knowledge based on their experiences, many modern classrooms adopt a constructivist approach. Here, students are encouraged to construct their understanding and knowledge of the world by experiencing and reflecting on those experiences.

While educational practices have evolved and integrated various theories, Piaget's influence is unmistakably prevalent. His focus on the child as an active learner, the stages of cognitive development, and the significance of hands-on, relevant learning continues to shape how education is delivered in the 21st century.

Related posts:

  • Concrete Operational Stage (3rd Cognitive Development)
  • Piaget's Theory of Moral Development (4 Stages + Examples)
  • Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
  • Havighurst’s Developmental Task Theory
  • The Psychology of Long Distance Relationships

Reference this article:

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Developmental Psychology:

Developmental Psychology

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Trust vs Mistrust

Autonomy vs Shame

Initiative vs Guilt

Industry vs inferiority

Identity vs Confusion

Intimacy vs Isolation

Generativity vs Stagnation

Integrity vs Despair

Attachment Styles

Avoidant Attachment

Anxious Attachment

Secure Attachment

Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Piaget's Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage

Object Permanence

Preoperational Stage

Concrete Operational Stage

Formal Operational Stage

Unconditional Positive Regard

Birth Order

Zone of Proximal Development

systematic problem solving piaget

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Jean Piaget Biography (1896-1980)

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

systematic problem solving piaget

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

systematic problem solving piaget

Verhoeff, Bert / Anefo / National Archief / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

  • Career and Theories
  • Contributions
  • Influence on Psychology

Jean Piaget Quotes

Frequently asked questions.

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologist. You may have heard of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, for which he is famous. This theory looks at how children develop intellectually throughout the course of childhood.

At a Glance

Jean Piaget helped shape our foundational knowledge of childhood cognitive development. His theories have influenced not just the field of developmental psychology, but also other fields, including sociology, education, and more.

Overview of Piaget's Life and Work

Prior to Piaget's theory, children were often thought of simply as mini-adults. Instead, Piaget suggested that the way children think is fundamentally different from the way that adults think.

Piaget's theory had a tremendous influence on the emergence of developmental psychology as a distinctive subfield within psychology and contributed greatly to the field of education. He is also credited as a pioneer of the constructivist theory , which suggests that people actively construct their knowledge of the world based on the interaction between their ideas and experiences.

In a 2002 survey of 1,725 American Psychological Society members, Piaget was named the second most influential psychologist of the 20th century.

Best Known For

  • Theory of cognitive development
  • Developing the term "genetic epistemology" (the study of the origins of knowledge)

Biography of Piaget's Life

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland on August 9, 1896, and began showing an interest in the natural sciences at a very early age.

By the time he was 11, Piaget had already started his career as a researcher by writing a short paper on an albino sparrow.

Piaget continued to study the natural sciences and received his doctorate in zoology from the University of Neuchâtel in 1918. During this time, he published two essays that provided a foundation for his future thoughts and theories.

While his early career consisted of work in the natural sciences, during the 1920s he began to move toward work as a psychologist.

Personal Life

Piaget married Valentine Châtenay in 1923 and the couple went on to have three children. Piaget's observations of his own children served as the basis for many of his later theories.

Later Years

In 1925, Piaget returned to the University of Neuchâtel as a professor of psychology, sociology, and philosophy. From 1929 to 1967, he served as the Director of the International Bureau of Education in Geneva. He also taught at the University of Geneva.

Piaget founded the International Center for Genetic Epistemology in 1955. He died in 1980 and was buried in Geneva.

Piaget Biographies

There have been numerous biographies written about Piaget's life, including "Conversations With Jean Piaget " by Jean-Claude Bringuier (1980) and "Jean Piaget, the Man and His Ideas" by Richard Evans (1973).

Piaget also wrote his autobiography for a chapter in "History of Psychology in Autobiography," volume 4, published in 1952.

Piaget's Career and Theories

Piaget had several ideas or theories about cognitive development throughout his career.

Intellectual Development

Piaget developed an interest in psychoanalysis and spent a year working at a boys' institution created by Alfred Binet . Binet is known as the developer of the world's first intelligence test, and Piaget took part in scoring these assessments.

Roots of Knowledge

Piaget identified himself as a genetic epistemologist. In his paper Genetic Epistemology, Piaget explained, "What the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering the roots of the different varieties of knowledge, since its elementary forms, following to the next levels, including also the scientific knowledge."

Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the origin, nature, extent, and limits of human knowledge. Piaget was interested not only in the nature of thought but also in how it develops and how genetics impact this process.

His early work with Binet's intelligence tests led Piaget to conclude that children think differently than adults. While this is a widely accepted notion today, it was considered revolutionary at the time. It was this observation that inspired his interest in understanding how knowledge grows throughout childhood.

Piaget suggested that children sort the knowledge they acquire through their experiences and interactions into groupings known as schemas . When new information is acquired, it can either be assimilated into existing schemas or accommodated through revising an existing schema or creating an entirely new category of information.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Today, Jean Piaget is best known for his research on children's cognitive development. Piaget studied the intellectual development of his own three children and created a theory that described the stages that children pass through in the development of intelligence and formal thought processes.

The four stages of Piaget's theory are as follows:

  • Sensorimotor stage : The first stage of development lasts from birth to approximately age 2. At this point in development, children know the world primarily through their senses and movements.
  • Preoperational stage : The second stage of development lasts from the ages of 2 to 7 and is characterized by the development of language and the emergence of symbolic play.
  • Concrete operational stage : The third stage of cognitive development lasts from the age of 7 to approximately age 11. At this point, logical thought emerges, but children still struggle with abstract and theoretical thinking.
  • Formal operational stage : In the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, lasting from age 12 and into adulthood, children become much more adept at abstract thought and deductive reasoning.

Additional Reading

For further exploration of Piaget's ideas, consider reading some of the source texts. The following are a few of Piaget's best-known works.

  • "Origins of Intelligence in the Child," 1936
  • "Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood," 1945
  • "Main Trends in Psychology." 1970
  • "Genetic Epistemology," 1970
  • "Memory and intelligence," 1973

Piaget's Contributions to Psychology

Piaget contributed to psychology in various ways. He provided support for the idea that children think differently than adults and his research identified several important milestones in the mental development of children. His work also generated interest in cognitive and developmental psychology.

Piaget's theories are widely studied today by students of both psychology and education. In the case of the latter, he once said, "The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done."

Piaget's Influence on Psychology

Piaget's theories continue to be studied in the areas of psychology, sociology, education, and genetics. His work contributed to our understanding of the cognitive development of children. Piaget helped demonstrate that childhood is a unique and important period of human development.

In their 2005 text, "The Science of False Memory," authors C.J. Brainerd and V.F. Reyna wrote of Piaget's influence: "In the course of a long and hugely prolific career, he contributed important scholarly work to fields as diverse as the philosophy of science, linguistics, education, sociology, and evolutionary biology. Above all, however, he was the developmental psychologist of the 20th century.

For two decades, from the early 1960s to the early 1980s, Piagetian theory and Piaget's research findings dominated developmental psychology worldwide, much as Freud's ideas had dominated abnormal psychology a generation before. Almost single-handedly, he shifted the focus of developmental research away from its traditional concerns with social and emotional development and toward cognitive development."

Influence on Psychologists

Piaget's work influenced other notable psychologists including Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg .

  • Howard Gardner : Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences in the 1970s and 1980s. Unlike Piaget, Gardner believed that there are various types of intelligence vs. a single type of intelligence of which people have greater or lesser amounts. Gardner cited Piaget as greatly influencing his work, as he sought to prove Piaget's theory wrong.
  • Robert Sternberg : Similar to Gardner, Sternberg's work uses classical theories of intelligence like Piaget's, but contradicts them. Sternberg is best-known for his triarchic theory of intelligence in which he posits there are three types of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical. According to Sternberg, IQ tests only measure analytic intelligence, which doesn't give a complete picture of someone's intelligence.

Influence on Education

Piaget's work continues to influence education. He advocated for the following principles, which are still often used in classrooms:

  • Discovery learning : This emphasizes the idea that children should be given the freedom to explore and discover new information on their own. A learning environment should also provide courses such as music, dance, and art.
  • Problem-solving : Piaget believed that children should be taught by solving problems; in addition, teachers should pay attention to how a child arrives at a correct answer.
  • Stage-based teaching : Since each child falls into a different stage of cognitive development (and children progress through the stages in their own time), Piaget believed it was important that the learning environment reflects which stage a child is in.

Here is a selection of some of Jean Piaget's most famous quotes.

On Genetic Epistemology

"What the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering the roots of the different varieties of knowledge, since its elementary forms, following to the next levels, including also the scientific knowledge."

"The fundamental hypothesis of genetic epistemology is that there is a parallelism between the progress made in the logical and rational organization of knowledge and the corresponding formative psychological processes. With that hypothesis, the most fruitful, most obvious field of study would be the reconstituting of human history—the history of human thinking in prehistoric man. Unfortunately, we are not very well informed in the psychology of primitive man, but there are children all around us, and it is in studying children that we have the best chance of studying the development of logical knowledge, physical knowledge, and so forth."

On Cognitive Development

"Knowing reality means constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to reality. They are more or less isomorphic to transformations of reality. The transformational structures of which knowledge consists are not copies of the transformations in reality; they are simply possible isomorphic models among which experience can enable us to choose. Knowledge, then, is a system of transformations that become progressively adequate."

On Education

"Children have real understanding only of that which they invent themselves, and each time that we try to teach them something too quickly, we keep them from reinventing it themselves."

On Intelligence

"Furthermore, intelligence itself does not consist of an isolated and sharply differentiated class of cognitive processes. It is not, properly speaking, one form of structuring among others; it is the form of equilibrium towards which all the structures arise out of perception, habit and elementary sensorimotor mechanisms tend."

Piaget is known for his theory of cognitive development that first introduced the notion that children think differently than adults, which was a new way of thinking at the time. He is also known for creating the term "genetic epistemology," which refers to the study of knowledge development.

Children begin to develop language during the preoperational stage, according to Piaget's theory. This is the second stage of development and begins when the child is around 2 years of age and lasts until they are roughly 7.

Piaget defined egocentrism as a mindset that "vivifies the external world and materialises the internal world." Put simply, it is having a greater focus on one's own thoughts and feelings than on the thoughts and feelings of others.

Piaget theorized that egocentrism developed between the stages of autistic thought (thought that is undirected and symbolic) and scientific thought (thought that is more logical and socialized)—which is roughly between the ages of 3 and 7.

Piaget's cognitive development theory changed the way we look at child development—namely, that children have different thought processes than adults. His contributions greatly influenced future developmental theories within the psychology field while also impacting other fields as well, such as education, sociology, and genetics.

Larcher V. Children are not small adults: Significance of biological and cognitive development in medical practice . Handbook Philos Med. 2015. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8706-2_16-1

University of Kentucky. Study ranks the top 20th century psychologists .

Piaget J. Genetic epistemology . Am Behav Sci . 1970;13(3):459-480. doi:10.1177/000276427001300320

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Piagetian theory . American Psychological Association.

Valsiner J, Molenaar PCM, Lyra MCDP, Chaudhary N, eds. Dynamic Process Methodology in the Social and Developmental Sciences . Springer New York.

Brainerd CJ, Reyna VF. The Science of False Memory . Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195154054.001.0001

Shearer B. Multiple intelligences in teaching and education: Lessons learned from neuroscience .  J Intell . 2018;6(3):38. doi:10.3390/jintelligence6030038

Sternberg RJ. Intelligence .  Dialogues Clin Neurosci . 2012;14(1):19-27. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2012.14.1/rsternberg

R, Madanagopal D. Piaget’s theory and stages of cognitive development- An overview . SJAMS. 2020;8(9):2152-2157. doi:10.36347/sjams.2020.v08i09.034

Peterson, Thomas.  Epistemology and the Predicates of Education: Building Upon a Process Theory of Learning . United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2019.

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Genetic epistemology . American Psychological Association.

Kesselring T, Muller U. The concept of egocentrism in the context of Piaget's theory . New Ideas Psychol . 2011;29(3):327-45. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2010.03.008

Jean Piaget Society. About Jean Piaget .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

  • Jean Piaget's Theory Of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

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Formal operations

Piaget used the term "mental operations" to describe the mental ability to imagine a hypothetical situation and to be able to determine a likely outcome, without needing to actually observe or enact the scenario. This is commonly called a "What if--?" scenario. For instance, suppose a 7-10 year old child is asked, "What if there was a hungry dog in the kitchen and Mother dropped a hotdog on the floor. What do you think would happen?" Most children at this age will correctly guess that the dog ate the hotdog, particularly if they have any experience with dogs. Piaget called this type of mental operation a "concrete operation" because the mental operation represents a tangible, concrete circumstance that the child can easily imagine since it is anchored to things that can be seen and touched in the real world: It is concrete.

According to Piaget, the adolescent years are remarkable because youth move beyond the limitations of concrete mental operations and develop the ability to think in a more abstract manner. Piaget used the term "formal operations" to describe this new ability. Formal operations refer to the ability to perform mental operations with abstract, intangible concepts such as "justice" or "poverty" and to be able to estimate or describe the effect of these intangible concepts. Therefore, youth can now represent in their mind circumstances, or events that they have never seen, nor personally experienced. For instance, a youth who has reached the stage of formal operations can imagine and accurately describe what it may have been like to be a poor, black resident of New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina and can imagine and describe how victims may have felt about the inadequate and disparate rescue efforts. This youth will be able to use the abstract concepts of injustice and poverty to imagine and describe these events.

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Piaget's research found that youth entered the stage of formal operations at approximately 11 years of age on average; however, there is a great deal of individual variation with respect to normal development. Children's cognitive development can be affected by many factors such as family culture; the quantity and quality of formal schooling or training; various medical conditions; and emotional or physical trauma. If parents have concerns about their children's lack of developmental progress, they will want to discuss these concerns with their children's health care provider, and other professionals such as teachers, guidance counselors, and school administrators. If these professionals believe there is cause for concern, they may refer the child for psychological testing for further assessment. More information about psychological assessments for children can be found here.

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning and propositional thought

In addition to the ability to perform abstract mental operations, teens become more scientific and logical in the way they approach problems. Piaget called this methodical, scientific approach to problem-solving, "hypothetico-deductive reasoning." Youth can now consider a problem, or situation, and can identify the many variables that may influence or affect the outcome. They can also estimate the most likely outcome if one or more variables are changed or manipulated. This ability has very practical applications because it enables youth to select the most logical or sensible solution to a problem.

To illustrate the value of hypothetico-deductive reasoning, consider the following example: A teenage boy, Aaron, decided he'd like to surprise his Mom and bake her some cookies. Unfortunately, the first batch didn't turn out so well- the cookies were burnt. In order to solve this problem Aaron will mentally review the ingredients he used, and the steps he took to bake the cookies. Aaron will consider the variables that typically cause burnt cookies such as omitting a key ingredient, an improper oven temperature, or leaving the cookies in the oven too long. Next, Aaron will imagine changing each individual variable in order to determine the most likely cause of the burnt cookies, and he will subsequently decide what he needs to do differently. For instance, Aaron may decide that the most likely cause of the burnt cookies was that he left them in the oven too long. So, for the next batch of cookies Aaron will set the timer for a shorter period of time. After the second batch is finished, he will then evaluate if this solved the problem or whether he needs to change a different variable. However, if Aaron's younger brother James were to try and solve the burnt cookie problem, James would try to change several variables all at once, by adding more milk, changing the baking time, and changing the oven temperature. This is because younger children cannot think about possible solutions to the problem without trying out the solutions, and younger children do not know how to solve problems in a logical and methodical manner by changing one variable at a time.

According to Piaget, another complicated thought process that adolescents master is called "propositional thought." This means youth can determine whether a statement is logical based solely on the wording of the statement, rather than having to observe or re-create the actual scenario to determine if it is logical. For example, suppose Uncle Marty told his 14-year-old niece Jaime, "I have one piece of money in my wallet for you. It's a $5 bill, and it's a $20 bill." Jaime would automatically know her uncle was joking around with her because she knows this statement is illogical simply by the way it is worded: A single American money bill cannot represent two different denominations of money. However, suppose Uncle Marty were to say the same thing to his 7-year-old nephew Andrew. Andrew would not automatically understand the impossibility of this sentence and would need to see the money in his uncle's wallet to decide if he was trying to tease him or not.

The imaginary audience and the personal fable

Not only do adolescents become more scientific and logical, but they also become better students of observation and interpretation. By observing other people's behavior, expressions, comments, and appearance they can interpret this information and make reasonable guesses about what another person may be thinking, wanting, needing, or feeling. As such, adolescents also begin to wonder about what other people may be thinking about them! Unfortunately, these new cognitive abilities appear at the same time that younger adolescents are struggling with insecurities about their changing appearance, changing identity, and changing life experiences. All of these factors combine to create what Piaget called the "imaginary audience." Teens may mistakenly believe that everyone around them is watching and judging them, scrutinizing their every move, and can become painfully self-conscious as a result. The concept of an imaginary audience helps parents to understand why their teenagers spend eons in front of the bathroom mirror just to run to the store for a short errand, or become incredibly embarrassed over a seemingly minor mistake. Therefore, the imaginary audience provides an example of the inter-relationship between cognitive, emotional, and social development.

While the ability to use abstract thought and keen observational skills enables youth to become more attuned to others and more sensitive to people's needs, it can also lead to some new social and emotional difficulties when youth use their new cognitive abilities to compare themselves to others. Youth may feel exceptionally unique and different from other people, including their own peers. Piaget called this the "personal fable." Many teens believe they have unique abilities, or conversely, unique problems, different from anyone else in the world. Some youth feel as though they are better, smarter, or stronger than others. This personal fable can lead to some devastating consequences because these youth may take dangerous risks when they over-estimate their abilities and believe they can "handle it," or mistakenly believe they are omnipotent and that bad things cannot happen to them. This is why it is important for adult caregivers to continue to monitor youths' behavior, choices, and decisions.

Conversely, other youth may feel as though they are dumber, weaker, and inferior to others. This kind of personal fable can lead to feelings of sadness, frustration, and loneliness. If these negative thoughts and feelings continue to strengthen, youth can become depressed or hopeless, which can lead to other dangerous behaviors such as drug use, unsafe sexual activity, or even suicide. Once again, these youth need their caregivers' love, guidance, and support to help them through these difficult circumstances. More specific information about emotional development can be found later in this article .

While Jean Piaget's theory has greatly advanced our knowledge and understanding of cognitive development, some parts of his theory have not withstood the rigors of contemporary research. This newer research has resulted in some modifications to his theory. For instance, recent research has demonstrated that everyone does not reach the stage of formal operations (the ability to think abstractly), as Piaget once believed (Keating, 1979; Cole, 1990). Furthermore, research suggests that if abstract thinking isn't practiced frequently, or isn't needed on a daily basis, the skill may never fully develop. Even when someone has acquired the ability to think abstractly, research has revealed that most adults can only think abstractly in a few specific domains such as specific areas of expertise, education, or other areas of special interest (Lehman & Nisbett, 1990). Thus, adults are less able to think abstractly about unfamiliar topics and concepts.

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systematic problem solving piaget

In his theory of cognitive development , Jean Piaget stated that there are four stages that each individual goes through . The fourth and last stage of cognitive development is called the Formal Operational Stage. This period takes place at around 12 years old and lasts well into adulthood.

What Happens During the Formal Operational Stage?

This is the time when thinking skills become advanced and more sophisticated. Those in this stage can think about abstract and theoretical concepts and can use logic to come up with solutions to problems.

Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning are developed during this time.

Developing the Idea: Piaget’s Research

Jean Piaget conducted tests to support his theory of cognitive development. For the Formal Operational Stage, he came up with two: (1) physical conceptualization and (2) abstraction of thought.

For physical conceptualization, he used the concept of balance. Children from different age groups were asked to balance a scale. He found that those in the Formal Operational Stage (approximately 13 years old) made a hypothesis about where to place the weights to achieve balance. 10-year-old subjects used the trial-and-error method, while 7-year-olds placed weights on each side of the scale but did not consider the placement of the weights. Subjects younger than 7 years old were not able to complete the task because they did not understand the concept of balance. 

In the second test, which had to do with the abstraction of thought, children were asked to think of where to put a third eye if they could have one. Most of the younger children stated that they wanted to place the third eye in the middle of the forehead, while those in the Formal Operational Stage suggested more creative answers like putting it behind the head to see what’s happening behind them.

Creative ideas such as the answers provided by the children in the Formal Operational Stage are indicative of the use of abstract and hypothetical thought.  

Notable Skills

The skills listed below are indicators of the Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development:

1.                  Deductive Logic – this has to do with being able to think in broader terms. Children at this stage can come up with solutions to problems using logic and general principles. This skill is useful in Science and Math. 

2.                  Abstract Thought – has to do with being able to think about abstract ideas. They consider possible outcomes, which include out-of-the-box ideas to solve problems. This skill is useful for long term planning.

3.                  Problem Solving – is the ability to plan an efficient and logical approach to solve a problem.

4.                  Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning – children at this age think about what-ifs and attempt to formulate various solutions to solve them.

The Formal Operational Stage is the last of four stages of cognitive development posited by Jean Piaget. Formal operational thinkers can think of different solutions to solve a problem, including those that are creative and abstract. Individuals in this stage think carefully before they act. 

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Cognitive development.

Fatima Malik ; Raman Marwaha .

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  • Definition/Introduction

The concept of childhood is relatively new; in most medieval societies, childhood did not exist. At approximately seven years of age, children were considered little adults with similar expectations for a job, marriage, and legal consequences. Charles Darwin originated ideas of childhood development in his work on the origins of ethology (the scientific study of the evolutionary basis of behavior) and "A Biographical Sketch of an Infant," first published in 1877.

It wasn't until the 20th century that developmental theories emerged. When conceptualizing cognitive development, we cannot ignore the work of Jean Piaget. Piaget suggested that when young infants experience an event, they process new information by balancing assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is taking in new information and fitting it into previously understood mental schemas. Accommodation is adapting and revising a previously understood mental schema according to the novel information. Piaget divided child development into four stages.

The first stage, Sensorimotor (ages 0 to 2 years of age), is the time when children master two phenomena: causality and object permanence. Infants and toddlers use their sense and motor abilities to manipulate their surroundings and learn about the environment. They understand a cause-and-effect relationship, like shaking a rattle may produce sound and may repeat it or how crying can make the parent(s) rush to give them attention. As the frontal lobe matures and memory develops, children in this age group can imagine what may happen without physically causing an effect; this is the emergence of thought and allows for the planning of actions. Object permanence emerges around six months of age. It is the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not presently visible. 

Second is the "Pre-operational" stage (ages 2 to 7 years), when a child can use mental representations such as symbolic thought and language. Children in this age group learn to imitate and pretend to play. This stage is characterized by egocentrism, i.e., being unable to perceive that others can think differently than themselves, and everything (good or bad) somehow links to the self. 

Third is the "Concrete Operational stage" (ages 7 to 11 years), when the child uses logical operations when solving problems, including mastery of conservation and inductive reasoning. Finally, the Formal Operational stage (age 12 years and older) suggests an adolescent can use logical operations with the ability to use abstractions. Adolescents can understand theories, hypothesize, and comprehend abstract ideas like love and justice.

Childhood cognitive development and the Piaget stages are poorly generalizable. For example, conservation may overlap between the Pre-operational and Concrete Operational stages as the child masters conservation in one task and not in another. Similarly, the current understanding is that a child masters the "Theory of Mind" by 4 to 5 years, much earlier than when Piaget suggested that egocentrism resolves. [1]

Stages of Cognitive Development (Problem-Solving and Intelligence)  

The word intelligence derives from the Latin "intelligere," meaning to understand or perceive. Problem-solving and cognitive development progress from establishing object permanence, causality, and symbolic thinking with concrete (hands-on) learning to abstract thinking and embedding of implicit (unconscious) to explicit memory development.

Birth to two months: The optical focal length is approximately 10 inches at birth. Infants actively seek stimuli, habituate to the familiar, and respond more vigorously to changing stimuli. The initial responses are more reflexive, like sucking and grasping. The infant can fix and follow a slow horizontal arc and eventually will follow past the midline. Contrasts, colors, and faces are preferred. The infant will distinguish familiar from moderately novel stimuli. As habituation to the faces of caregivers occurs, preferences are developed. The infant will stare momentarily where at the place from where an object has disappeared (lack of object permanence). At this stage, high-pitched voices are preferred.

Two to six months: Children in this age bracket engage in a purposeful sensory exploration of their bodies, staring at their hands and reaching and touching their body parts; this builds the concepts of cause and effect and self-understanding. Sensations and changes outside of themselves are appreciated with less regularity. As motor abilities are mastered, something that happens by chance will be repeated. For example, touching a button may light up the toy, or crying can cause the appearance of the caregiver. Routines are appreciated in this age group.

Six to twelve months:  Object permanence emerges in this age group as the toddler looks for objects. A six-month-old will look for partially hidden objects, while a nine-month-old will look for wholly hidden objects and uncover them; this includes engaging in peek-a-boo-type games. Separation and stranger anxiety emerge as the toddler understands that out of sight is not out of mind. As motor abilities advance, sensory exploration of the environment occurs via reaching, inspecting, holding, mouthing, and dropping objects. They learn to manipulate their environment, learning cause and effect by trial and error, like banging two blocks together can produce a sound. Eventually, as Piaget suggested, mental schemas are built, and objects can be used functionally; for example, by intentionally pressing a button to open and reach inside a toy box.

Twelve to eighteen months: Around this time, motor abilities make it easier for the child to walk and reach, grasp, and release. Toys can be explored, made to work, and novel play skills emerge. Gestures and sounds can be imitated. Egocentric pretend play emerges. As object permanence and memory advance, objects can be found after witnessing a series of displacements, and moving objects can be tracked.

Eighteen months to two years: As memory and processing skills advance and frontal lobes mature, outcomes are imagined without so much physical manipulation, and new problem-solving strategies emerge without rehearsal. Thought arises, and there is the ability to plan actions. Object permanence is wholly established, and objects can be searched for by anticipating where they may be without witnessing their displacement. At 18 months, symbolic play expands from just the self; the child may attempt to feed a toy along with themselves, and housework may be imitated.

Two to five years: During this stage, the preschool years, magical and wishful thinking emerges; for example, the sun went home because it was tired. This ability may also give rise to apprehensions with fear of monsters, and having logical solutions may not be enough for reassurance. Perception will dominate over logic, and giving them an imaginary tool, like a monster spray, to help relieve that anxiety may be more helpful. Similarly, conservation and volume concept lacks, and what appears bigger or larger is more. For example, one cookie split into may equal two cookies.

Children in the preschool stage have a poor concept of cause and may think sickness is due to misbehavior. They are egocentric in their approach and may look at situations from only their point of view, offering comfort from a favorite stuffed toy to an upset loved one. At 36 months, a child can understand simple time concepts, identify shapes, compare two items, and count to three. Play becomes more comprehensive. At 48 months, children can count to four, identify four colors and understand opposites.

At five years of age, pre-literacy and numeracy skills further; five-year-old children can count to ten accurately, recites the alphabet by rote, and recognize a few letters. A child also develops hand preference at this age. Play stories become even more detailed between four and five years and may include imaginary scenarios, including imaginary friends. Playing with some game rules and obedience to those rules also establishes during the preschool years. Rules can be absolute.

Six to twelve years:  During early school years, scientific reasoning and understanding of physical laws of conservation, including weight and volume, develop. A child can understand multiple points of view and can understand one perspective of a situation. They realize the rules of the game can change with mutual agreement. Basic literacy skills of reading and numbers are mastered initially. Eventually, around third to fourth grade, the emphasis shifts from learning to read to reading to learn and from spelling to composition writing. All these stages need mastery of sustained attention and processing skills, receptive and expressive language, and memory development and recall. The limitation of this stage is an inability to comprehend abstract ideas and reliance on logical answers.

Twelve years and older:  During this age, adolescents can exercise logic systematically and scientifically. They can simultaneously apply abstract thinking to solve algebraic problems and multiple logics to reach a scientific solution. It is easier to use these concepts for schoolwork. Later in adolescence and early adulthood, these concepts can also apply to emotional and personal life problems. Magical thinking or following ideals guides decisions more than wisdom. Some may have more influence from religious or moral rules and absolute concepts of right and wrong. Questioning the prevalent code of conduct may cause anxiety or rebellion and eventually lead to the development of personal ethics. Side by side, social cognition, apart from self, also is developing, and concepts of justice, patriarchy, politics, etc. establish. During late teens and early adulthood, thinking about the future, including ideas such as love, commitment, and career goals, become important. [2]

  • Issues of Concern

Pediatric and primary care practitioners are in a prime position to monitor the growth and development of children, particularly cognitive development. A lag in cognitive development may alert the provider to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, learning disability, global developmental delay, developmental language disorder, developmental coordination disorder, mild intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, moderate-severe intellectual disability, cerebral palsy, fetal alcohol syndrome (FASD), or vision and auditory disorders.

The most well-known causes of intellectual disability are FASD, Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, other genetic or chromosomal problems, lead or other toxicities, and environmental influences such as poverty, malnutrition, abuse, and neglect. Prenatal causes of intellectual disability include infection, toxins and teratogens, congenital hypothyroidism, inborn errors of metabolism, and genetic abnormalities. Fetal alcohol syndrome is the most common preventable cause of intellectual disability. Down syndrome is the most common genetic cause, and Fragile X syndrome is the most common inherited cause. First-tier tests recommended for intellectual disability are chromosomal microarray and Fragile X testing. 

Clinical concerns can arise in areas of visual analysis, proprioception, motor control, memory storage and recall, attention span and sequencing, and deficits in receptive or expressive language. Early recognition of intellectual disability leads to earlier diagnosis and intervention, showing promising results in improved cognition. Besides what is best for children and families, early intervention saves overall economic expenditure on disabilities. Thus, surveillance alone is inadequate; active screening for developmental delay should be an integral part of medical practice. [3]  Some commonly used measures for screening are the Ages and Stages Questionnaire and the Survey of Well-being of Young Children. If the results of surveillance and screening are concerning, watchful waiting is inadequate, and a referral is necessary for early intervention.

Intellectual disability is defined when there is a concern for intellectual and adaptive functioning. Usually, on standardized measures, this means a score less than two standard deviations below the mean, which is 100 for most measures. Standardized tests used to measure intellectual function include the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), and the Stanford-Binet test. One standardized test for adaptive functioning is the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale.

A learning disability should be suspected when the intelligence score is within the average range, but a significant discrepancy in achievement scores exists, or a child does not respond to evidence-based interventions. Evidence-based interventions include increasing instruction time and specialized instruction by trained personnel in deficit areas.

  • Clinical Significance

Early intervention during the "critical period" in development has shown promising results. [4]  Thus clinicians must take the lead to diagnose, treat, and establish resources for early intervention to provide optimal health opportunities to our children. Early intervention services should be provided in two areas; biological risk/disabilities and environmental risk. 

Pediatric and primary care practitioners should understand The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) and other federal policies. Early intervention laws give entitlement to services from birth through early intervention home-based service, the Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) from birth to 3 years of age, and individualized education plans for ages 3 to 21 years. The goal is to minimize or prevent disability by accommodating children with intellectual disabilities or changing the curriculum to meet the individualized needs of the child. This plan should be based on an interprofessional assessment to understand the child's needs. 

Thus, clinicians should partner with social workers, psychologists, or psychiatrists for thorough evaluations, lawyers to explore legal support and advocacy for services, therapists, early intervention providers, and schools to plan individualized goals and monitor progress.

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Disclosure: Fatima Malik declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Raman Marwaha declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

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Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

In Piaget’s formal operational stage, which begins at around the age of 11 and continues until later teenage years, children undergo a crucial mental transformation. They acquire the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically , enabling them to explore complex ideas, engage in propositional thought, and employ advanced problem-solving. They can now understand such abstract constructs as justice, happiness, love, freedom, and tradition.

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage Of Cognitive Development

  • Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Of Cognitive Development
  • Concrete Operational Stage Of Cognitive Development

This newfound capacity for hypothetical-deductive reasoning allows them to formulate and test abstract theories. Additionally, they develop a heightened awareness of their own thinking processes, known as metacognition , and learn to critique arguments and engage in debates. Given these developments, the formal operational stage is extremely significant, as it equips individuals with the essential cognitive tools for success in various academic pursuits and beyond.

Abstract Thought

As previously mentioned, the formal operational stage represents a significant cognitive transition following the concrete operational stage. In the concrete operational stage , which precedes it and is common during middle childhood, thinking remains concrete, firmly tethered to observable objects and actions. At this stage, abstract thinking, as well as handling hypothetical situations, can be challenging.

However, as a child progresses into the formal operational stage, they undergo a transformative shift from this concrete thinking mode into abstract thought. This equips them with the capacity to transcend immediate sensory experiences and engage with abstract concepts and hypothetical scenarios, marking a significant milestone in cognitive development. For instance, they may now contemplate complex philosophical questions like the nature of reality or the existence of extra-terrestrial life.

Scientific Reasoning

Scientific reasoning, within Piaget’s framework, becomes prominent during the formal operational stage and contrasts significantly with cognitive processes seen in the concrete operational stage. Scientific reasoning involves approaching problems systematically, logically, and empirically.

The ability to do this generally emerging during early adolescence, when individuals develop the capacity to think abstractly, engage in hypothetical-deductive reasoning, and manipulate abstract concepts, all of which are vital for scientific inquiry. For example, let us consider a scenario where a child hypothesizes that practicing a musical instrument for longer durations leads to better performance. They then informally design an experiment to explore this idea, carry out the experiment, and subsequently comprehend and explain the results, reformulating their beliefs in the process.

Hypothetical-Deductive reasoning

Related to the above-described skill of scientific reasoning, hypothetical-deductive reasoning is a cognitive process that involves the exploration of hypothetical scenarios and the systematic testing of hypotheses. It is characterized by the ability to consider “what-if” situations and to devise logical deductions based on these hypothetical premises.

In this type of reasoning, individuals mentally manipulate abstract ideas and variables that may not necessarily reflect reality, which can allow them to explore various possibilities, evaluate potential outcomes, and deduce logical consequences. For example, at this stage young people should learn to consider questions such as “What if humans had never invented the wheel?” or “What if electricity was never discovered?”. The ability to consider these types of scenarios is a crucial skill in scientific and mathematical problem-solving.

Additionally, students possessing the ability to engage in hypothetical thinking enjoy an advantage across various academic tasks, as they typically require fewer external aids to solve problems. This inherent self-direction aligns with the preferences of most educators and education systems. However, it is essential to recognize that formal operational thinking, while valuable, is not a comprehensive solution for all academic challenges. For instance, it does not guarantee motivation or good behavior, nor does it ensure proficiency in areas like sports, music, or art.

Piaget’s fourth developmental stage primarily relates to a specific form of formal thinking, one connected to solving scientific problems and devising experiments. Given that most individuals do not regularly encounter such challenges in their everyday lives, it is unsurprising that research indicates many people may not fully or consistently employ formal thinking, often limiting its application to familiar areas of expertise (3).

Metacognition

Metacognition plays a vital role as young people gain the ability to think about their own thinking processes. This cognitive development allows for introspection, reflective thinking, and the capacity to monitor, plan, and evaluate one’s own thoughts and problem-solving strategies. Young people in this stage learn to set goals, self-regulate their cognitive activities, detect and correct errors, and transfer knowledge from one context to another. An example is a child’s recognition that they perform better on mathematical problems when they break them down into smaller steps and plan their approach in advance. They may realize that this strategy helps them avoid errors and improve their problem-solving skills. As a result, they consciously choose to use this approach when faced with complex math tasks, demonstrating metacognitive awareness and self-regulation of their cognitive processes (1).

Problem-Solving

Furthermore, a child’s problem solving advances significantly and is characterized by systematic, logical, abstract, and hypothetical thinking, as previously described. As an example, imagine a 14-year-old who encounters a challenge: her computer will not start, and she has an important school project to complete. In the formal operational stage, she engages her problem-solving skills by assessing the situation, considering potential solutions (restart, check cables, seek online help using her smartphone), and then chooses to first check the cables. Using both scientific and hypothetico-deductive reasoning, she examines the connections and identifies a loose power cable. After securely connecting it, her systematic and logical problem-solving in the formal operational stage has enabled her to get the computer running and complete the project on time (2).

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

In earlier development stages, children have generally learned to employ deductive reasoning. This involves drawing specific conclusions from general principles. For instance, based on the general principle that “all living things require water,” someone in this stage can deduce that “if a plant is not watered, it will eventually die.” However, they now learn to utilize deductive reasoning, too (5). This consists of forming general principles based on specific observations. For example, after observing that multiple species of birds in a region have similar nesting habits, a person in the formal operational stage might conclude that “many birds in this region share nesting behaviors.”

Adolescent Egocentrism

As described above, a critical shift marked by the ability to grasp abstract thoughts and hypothetical possibilities occurs in the operational stage of development. However, this cognitive advancement also gives rise to a phenomenon known as egocentrism, where self-focus intensifies. This egocentrism is rooted in the ways that adolescents attribute significant power to their own thoughts, a belief that Piaget suggested is only fully grasped when adolescents assume adult roles (4).

Furthermore, the physiological changes that accompany adolescence contribute to a notable shift in focus. Adolescents often become predominantly self-concerned, which is exacerbated by their inability to distinguish their own thoughts about themselves from those of others. This cognitive fusion results in the creation of an “ imaginary audience ” within their minds, a virtual audience that keenly observes and evaluates their behavior and appearance. This imaginary audience fosters the self-consciousness commonly experienced during early adolescence, which, in turn, drives the desire for privacy and a reluctance to divulge personal information. This emerges as a reaction to the constant perceived observation by this imaginary audience.

Another element of adolescent egocentrism is the heightening of the “ personal fable “, which began in earlier development stages. To differing extents, adolescents begin to more firmly believe that they are unique, special, and impervious to harm. This idea can arise from their perception that others hold them in equally high regard as special and unique individuals.

Adolescents can become convinced that their emotional experiences are unparalleled, making them incomprehensible to others. This sense of uniqueness can further bolster their belief in their own invulnerability, especially concerning the concept of death. Consequently, adolescents might engage in risky behavior, which they may look back on later in life with regret (6).

It is noteworthy that adolescent egocentrism is most pronounced during early adolescence but tends to diminish as individuals progress into middle adolescence. During this cognitive evolution, they often gradually come to understand the limits of their thoughts and move away from the self-centered worldview that characterizes the earlier stages of their developmental journey.

In the context of Piaget’s framework, the formal operational stage, occurring approximately from the age of 11 until the end period of adolescence, serves as the culmination of a child’s cognitive development journey. It is significant not only in isolation, but also in its deep connections to the preceding stages.

As children progress from sensory exploration to symbolic thinking and concrete problem-solving, they gradually ascend to the formal operational stage. Here, abstract thought and advanced reasoning take center stage, building upon the foundations laid in earlier phases. This bridges the gap between childhood curiosity and adult-like cognition, which represents the peak of cognitive development, and synthesizes the knowledge and skills acquired throughout the earlier stages.

  • Piaget, J. (1970). Science of education and the psychology of the child. Trans. D. Coltman.
  • Schaffer, H. R. (1988). Child Psychology: the future. In S. Chess & A. Thomas (eds), Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development. NY: Brunner/Mazel.
  • Siegler, R. S. & Richards, D. (1979). Development of time, speed and distance concepts. Developmental Psychology, 15, 288-298.
  • Schwartz, P. D., Maynard, A. M., & Uzelac, S. M. (2008). Adolescent egocentrism: A contemporary view. Adolescence, 43(171), 441–448.
  • Crain, W. (2005) Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Pearson, New Jersey.
  • Dolgin, K. Gale, & Rice, F. Philip. (2011). The adolescent : development, relationships, and culture. 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education.

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Jean Piagets theory of Cognitive Development

June 11, 2021

What is Jean Piaget's theory of Cognitive Development and what are the implications for creating active classrooms?

Main, P (2021, June 11). Jean Piagets theory of Cognitive Development. Retrieved from https://www.structural-learning.com/post/jean-piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development-and-active-classrooms

What is Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?

The Theory of Cognitive Development by Jean Piaget , the Swiss psychologist, suggests that children's intelligence undergoes changes as they grow. Cognitive development in children is not only related to acquiring knowledge , children need to build or develop a mental model of their surrounding world (Miller, 2011). His work is regarded as the cornerstone in the field of developmental psychology. In this article, we examine the implications his work has for the intellectual development of children in classrooms.

In the 1920s, Piaget was working at the Binet Institute and his main responsibility was to translate questions written in English intelligence tests into French . He became interested to find out why children gave incorrect answers to the questions needing logical thinking ( Meadows, 2019).

Piaget believed that these wrong answers revealed significant differences between the thinking of children and adults. Piaget proposed a new set of assumptions about the intelligence of children:

  • Children think differently and see the world differently from adults.
  • Children are not passive learners, they actively build up their knowledge about the surrounding.
  • The most effective way to understand children’s reasoning is to think from children's point of view.

Piaget did not want to measure how well children can spell, count or solve problems to check their I.Q. He was more intrigued to find out how the fundamental concepts such as the very idea of time, number, justice, quantity and so on emerged (Greenfield, 2019).

Piaget used observations and clinical interviews of older children who were able to hold conversations and understand questions. He also made controlled observation, and used naturalistic observation of his own three children and developed diary description with charts of children's development.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on the idea that children go through four stages of development, each with their own unique characteristics and abilities. The first stage, the sensorimotor stage, occurs from birth to around two years old and is characterized by the child's understanding of the world through sensory experiences and motor actions.

The second stage, the preoperational stage, occurs from around two to seven years old and is characterized by the child's ability to use symbols to represent objects and events. The third stage, the concrete operational stage, occurs from around seven to twelve years old and is characterized by the child's ability to think logically about concrete objects and events. Finally, the fourth stage, the formal operational stage, occurs from around twelve years old and is characterized by the child's ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically.

Stages of cognitive development

Who exactly was Jean Piaget?

He was born in 1896 in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. After finishing high school he went to study medicine but soon changed course to philosophy and sociology. During World War 1, he worked as an army doctor. When war ended, he started studying law and then switched again to philosophy and sociology. At the age of 30, he published his first book “G enetic Epistemology ” which received critical acclaim. This led him to become one of the leading psychologists of his generation. The Jean Piaget Society is named after him.

His research interests included child development , logic, mathematics, linguistics, social sciences and education.

His major works include "Logic", "Reasoning and Judgment" and " Constructionism ". Jean Piaget's work is important because it provides us with insights into cognitive processes during childhood. It helps teachers identify what needs to be taught and when. The following sections will explore some of the key ideas behind Piagetian theories.

Piaget influenced the field of developmental psychology because he showed that learning takes place through stages rather than just being acquired all at once. Anyone exploring a career in child psychology will no doubt come across his influential work. In recent years, it has come into some criticism but the importance of his contribution to developmental psychology cannot be denied.

- He was one of the first people to study children's development and he developed the theory that children develop through stages .

- He also studied how children learn and he found out that they learn by doing things and not just listening or reading about them.

- He also discovered that children have their own ways of learning and that they don't always follow the same rules as adults do.

- He also found out that children are very creative and imaginative and that they like to play and explore.

- He also believed that children should be allowed to make mistakes and that they shouldn't be punished for making them.

Stages of Cognitive Development

According to Jean Piaget, stages of development takes place via the interaction between natural capacities and environmental happenings, and children experience a series of stages (Wellman, 2011).  The sequence of these stages remains same across cultures. Each child goes through the same stages of cognitive development in life but with a different rate. The following are Piaget's stages of intellectual development:

Sensorimotor stage (Object permanence)

From birth to 18-24 months

The infants use their actions and senses to explore and learn about their surrounding environment.

During this stage, children develop object permanence , which means they understand that objects continue to exist even when they can't see them. This is a crucial milestone in cognitive development as it allows children to start forming mental representations of the world around them. As they progress through the following stages, they will continue to build on this foundation of knowledge, ultimately developing more complex cognitive abilities.

A variety of cognitive abilities develop at this stage; which mainly include representational play , object permanence, deferred imitation and self-recognition.

At this stage, infants live only in present. They do not have anything related to this world stored in their memory . At age of 8 months, the infant will understand different objects' permanence and they will search for them when they are not present.

Towards the endpoint of this stage, infants' general symbolic function starts to appear and they can use two objects to stand for each other. Language begins to appear when they realise that they can use  words to represent feelings and objects. The child starts to store information he knows about the world, label it and recall it .

Child development needs

Pre-operational stage (Symbolic thought)

From 2 to 7 years

The pre-operational stage is a crucial period in children's cognitive development. During this stage, children's thinking is not yet logical or concrete, and they struggle with concepts like cause and effect. They also have difficulty understanding other people's perspectives, which is why their thinking is egocentric. Additionally, their reasoning is based on intuition rather than logic, which can lead to errors in judgement. Despite these limitations, children in the pre-operational stage are still capable of incredible growth and learning , and it's important for parents and educators to provide them with the support and guidance they need to thrive.

Young children and Toddlers gain the ability to represent the world internally through mental imagery and language . At this stage, children symbolically think about things. They are able to make one thing, for example, an object or a word, stand for another thing different from itself.

A child mostly thinks about how the world appears, not how it is. At the preoperational stage, children do not show problem-solving or logical thinking. Infants in this age also show animism, which means that they think that toys and other non-living objects have feelings and live like a person.

By an age of 2 years, toddlers can detach their thought process from the physical world. But, they are still not yet able to develop operational or logical thinking skills of later stages.

Their thinking is still egocentric (centred on their own world view) and intuitive (based on children's subjective judgements about events).

Concrete operational stage

Concrete operational stage (Logical thought)

7 to 11 years

At this stage, children start to show logical thinking about concrete events. They start to grasp the concept of conservation. They understand that, even if things change in appearance but some properties still remain the same. Children at this stage can reverse things mentally. They start to think about other people's feelings and thinking and they also become less egocentric.

This stage is also known as concrete as children begin to think logically . According to Piaget, this stage is a significant turning point of a child's cognitive development because it marks the starting point of operational or logical thinking. At this stage, a child is capable of internally working things out in their head (rather than trying things out in reality).

Another key characteristic of the Concrete Operational Stage is the development of deductive reasoning. Children at this stage can use logic to draw conclusions and solve problems . They are able to understand that if A equals B and B equals C, then A must equal C. This type of reasoning allows them to understand more complex concepts and ideas, setting them up for success in their academic and personal lives.

Children at this stage may become overwhelmed or they may make mistakes when they are asked to reason about hypothetical or abstract problems. Conservation means that the child understands that even if some things change in appearance but their properties may remain the same. At age 6 children are able to conserve number, at age 7 they can conserve mass and at age 9 they can conserve weight. But logical thinking is only used if children ask to reason about physically present materials.

Developing scientific Schemas

Formal operational stage (Symbolic reasoning)

Age 12 and above

At this stage, individuals perform concrete operations on things and they perform formal operations on ideas. Formal logical thinking is totally free from perceptual and physical barriers. During this stage, adolescents can understand abstract concepts . They are able to follow any specific kind of argument without thinking about any particular examples.

During the Formal Operational Stage, children begin to develop the ability to think abstractly and use symbolic reasoning. This means they can think beyond concrete, physical objects and concepts and start to understand more complex and abstract ideas. They can solve hypothetical problems and understand metaphors, analogies, and other abstract concepts. This stage typically occurs between the ages of 11 and 16, but can vary depending on the individual child's development.

Adolescents are capable of dealing with hypothetical problems with several possible outcomes.This stage allows the emergence of scientific reasoning, formulating hypotheses and abstract theories as and whenever needed.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development made no claims about any specific age-associated with any of the particular stage but his description provides an indication of the age at which an average child would reach a certain stage.

How is Piaget's Theory Different from others?

In the realm of child development and cognition, theories often intersect, each providing a unique lens to understand the intricate processes that govern a child's growth. Renowned psychologists like Jean Piaget have made significant contributions, laying the foundation for further exploration. The following table outlines several prominent psychologists and their theories, highlighting the synergies with Piaget's ideas. The intertwined nature of these theories underscores the multifaceted nature of cognitive development, painting a comprehensive picture of how children learn, adapt, and evolve.

1. Lev Vygotsky: A Russian psychologist, Vygotsky proposed the Sociocultural Theory , emphasizing the significant influence of social interaction on cognitive development. His ideas resonate with Piaget's in the sense that both underscore the importance of active engagement in learning.

However, Vygotsky places a stronger emphasis on social factors in shaping cognitive schemas.

2. Erik Erikson: Erikson's theory of psychosocial development aligns with Piaget's ideas in its stage-based approach. While Piaget focuses on cognitive development, Erikson provides a broader view of social and emotional development, complementing the understanding of a child's evolving abilities.

3. Lawrence Kohlberg: Known for his stages of moral development , Kohlberg's work parallels Piaget's understanding of how children progress through distinct stages. Both theories underscore the idea that children's abilities and understanding evolve with time and experience.

4. Urie Bronfenbrenner: Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory provides a macro view of child development, considering the interplay of various environmental systems. This theory can be seen as complementary to Piaget's focus on the individual child's cognitive growth, adding a broader perspective on the environmental factors influencing this development.

5. Albert Bandura: Bandura's Social Learning Theory posits that children learn by observing and imitating others. This theory aligns with Piaget's emphasis on active engagement in learning, but adds a social aspect to the learning process, complementing Piaget's focus on individual exploration and discovery.

6. Howard Gardner: Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that there are multiple ways to be intelligent, going beyond the traditional IQ concept. His theory doesn't directly align with Piaget's work, but offers a different lens to view cognitive abilities of children, thereby enriching our understanding of child development.

Key Concepts Relating to Piaget's Schema Theory

  • Schemas – A schema indicates both the physical and mental actions involved in knowing and understanding. Schemas represent the categories of knowledge that help people to understand and interpret the world. A current schema can be built on and and become more complex. In many ways, this is the very nature of learning and teaching. Schema in psychology is a term that is used a lot, we think that schools and teachers need to turn their attention to this concept.

If we talk about learning as something that needs to be built then the idea of cognitive schemas makes perfect sense. These hidden worlds of the learner are what we as educators are trying to develop. In many ways our ability to build on our schemas is a fundamental aspect of intelligence. This could be where metacognition plays a central role.

Piaget believes that a schema involves a category of knowledge and the procedure to obtain that knowledge. As individuals gain new experiences, the new information is modified, and gets added to, or alter pre-existing schemas.

A child may have a schema about cats. For example: if his only experience has been with small cats, the child may believe that all cats are small. If this kid encounters a large cat, he would take in this new knowledge , altering the old schema to incorporate this new piece of information.

  • Adaptation- Adaptation is a type of schema that explains how persons understand and learn new information. According to Piaget's theory, There are two ways in which adaptation can occur.
  • Adaptation through Assimilation – When new information is taken from the outside world and is incorporated into a previously existing schema, it is called assimilation . This process is thought to be subjective, as people tend to modify information or experience that should match with their pre-existing beliefs. In Schema's example, seeing a cat and labelling it “cat” is an example of assimilating an animal into the child’s cat schema.
  • Adaptation through Accommodation – Accommodation occurs when persons process new information by altering their psychological representations to fit the new information. It is an additional constituent of adaptation that includes altering people's current schemas to suit the new information, this process is called accommodation. In accommodation, people change their existing ideas or schemas, due to a new experience or new information. These processes may give rise to the development of new schemas .
  • Equilibration – According to Piaget, each child tries to create a balance between accommodation and assimilation, which is only possible by implementing a mechanism called equilibration . As children grow through each stage of cognitive development , it becomes essential to uphold a balance between the application of past knowledge (assimilation) and altering attitude to acquire new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration assists and demonstrates how children must move from one stage of thinking into the next stage.

Educational Implications of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Although, later researchers have demonstrated how Piaget's theory is applicable for learning and teaching but Piaget (1952) does not clearly relate his theory to learning.

Piaget was very influential in creating teaching practices and educational policy. For instance, in 1966 a primary education review by the UK government was based upon Piaget’s theory. Also, the outcome of this review provided the foundation for publishing Plowden report (1967).

Discovery learning – the concept that children learn best through actively exploring and doing - was viewed as central to the primary school curriculum transformation.

Piaget believes that children must not be taught certain concepts until reaching the appropriate cognitive development stage. Also, accommodation and assimilation are requirements of an active learner only, because problem-solving skills must only be discovered they cannot be taught. The learning inside the classrooms must be student-centred and performed via active discovery learning . The primary role of an instructor is to facilitate learning, rather than direct teaching. Hence, teachers need to ensure the following practices within the classroom:

  • Pay more attention to the learning process , rather than focusing on the end product of it.
  • Use active teaching involving reconstructing or rediscovering "truths." (See Universal Thinking Framework ).
  • Use individual and collaborative activities (to allow children to learn from one another, see our blog post on dialogic pedagogy ).
  • Devise situations that offer useful problems , and develop disequilibrium in children (see this post on critical thinking ).
  • Assess a child's development level so appropriate tasks can be created.

Here are a list of potential activities thatare designed to align with the cognitive abilities typical of each developmental stage according to Piaget's theory.

Cognitive development using 'blocks of knowledge'

After having revisited some of this theory you can hopefully see the implications for the development of knowledge using our 'Writers Block'. Our earlier stages of developing this tool started with the idea of using concrete objects to represent abstract concepts. Children could start with their pre-existing schema and build from there.

You can read more about this active process of learning on the mental modelling page . Beginning an activity by asking a child the question 'What do I already know?' gives the pupil something to build on when starting an academic task. These cognitive structures serve as a platform for mental development. No one likes starting with a blank piece of paper and having previous knowledge visualised enables even the most reluctant of learner to 'get going'. 

Cognitive development

Critical Evaluation of Piaget's Theory

Piaget’s ideas have enormous influence on developmental psychology . His theories changed methods of teaching and changed people's perceptions about a child’s world.

Piaget (1936) was the foremost psychologist whose ideas enhanced people's understanding of cognitive development . His concepts have been of practical use in communicating with and understanding children, specially in the field of education ( Discovery Learning ).

Piaget 's main contributions include thorough observational studies of cognition in children , stage theory of children's cognitive development , and a series of ingenious but simple tests to evaluate multiple cognitive abilities .

Do stages really exist? Critiques of Formal Operation Thinking believe that the final stage of formal operations does not provide correct explanation of cognitive development . Not every person is capable of abstract reasoning and many adults do not even reach level of formal operations. For instance, Dasen (1994) mentioned that only less than half of adults ever reach the stage of formal operation. Maybe they are not distinct stages? Piaget was extremely focused on the universal stages of biological maturation and cognitive development that he failed to address the effect of culture and social setting on cognitive development .

A contemporary of Piaget, Vygotsky argued that social interaction is essential for cognitive development. Vygotsky believes that a child's learning always takes place in a social context involving co-operation of someone more knowledgeable (MKO). This kind od social interaction offers language opportunities and according to Vygotksy language provides the basis of thought.

Hughes (1975) believes that Piaget underestimated children's abilities as his tests were frequently unclear and hard to understand. Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1966) were against the concept of schema. Behaviorism also disapproves Piaget’s schema theory as it is an internal phenomenon which cannot be observed directly. Due to this, they would claim schema cannot be measured objectively.

Jean Piaget Cognitive Development

  • Bruner (1966) . Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge.: Belkapp Press.
  • (1994). Culture and cognitive development from a Piagetian perspective. Psychology and culture (pp. 145–149). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
  • Greenfield, P. M., & Cole, M. (2019). C. Cross-cultural research and Piagetian theory: Paradox and progress. In The developing individual in a changing world, Teil 1: Historical and cultural issues (pp. 322-333).
  • Hughes , M. (1975). Egocentrism in preschool children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Edinburgh University.
  • Meadows, S. (2019). Cognitive development. In Companion encyclopedia of psychology (pp. 699-715). Routledge.
  • Miller, P. H. (2011). Piaget's theory: Past, present, and future.
  • Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  • Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY: International University Press.
  • Plowden (1967). Children and their primary schools: A report (Research and Surveys). London, England: HM Stationery Office.
  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Wellman, H. M. (2011). Reinvigorating explanations for the study of early cognitive development. Child Development Perspectives, 5(1), 33-38.

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COMMENTS

  1. Piaget's Stages: 4 Stages of Cognitive Development & Theory

    Children progress through four distinct stages, each representing varying cognitive abilities and world comprehension: the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11 years and beyond).

  2. Piaget's Stages: 4 Stages of Cognitive Development & Theory

    1. The Sensorimotor Stage 2. The Preoperational Stage 3. The Concrete Operational Stage 4. The Formal Operational Stage Piaget's Theory vs Erikson's 5 Important Concepts in Piaget's Work Applications in Education (+3 Classroom Games) PositivePsychology.com's Relevant Resources A Take-Home Message References Who Was Jean Piaget in Psychology?

  3. Piaget's Formal Operational Stage: Definition & Examples

    The key steps of scientific inquiry include: forming a hypothesis about the outcome of the chemical reaction, conducting a careful experiment, observing the results, and then analyzing these findings to either confirm or revise their original hypothesis.

  4. Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development Explained

    Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage. Illustration by Brianna Gilmartin, Verywell Piaget tested formal operational thought in a few different ways. Two of the better-known tests explored physical conceptualization and the abstraction of thought.

  5. Piaget stages of development: The 4 stages and tips for each

    Challenges How to use the theory Summary Piaget's stages of development describe how children learn as they grow up. It has four distinct stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete...

  6. Formal Operational Stage

    During this stage, individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and solve problems in a systematic manner. Here are 14 examples of behaviors and thought processes that are characteristic of the formal operational stage: Hypothetical Thinking: The ability to consider hypothetical situations and possibilities.

  7. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Explained

    Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are: Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years. Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7.

  8. PDF Piaget & Problem Solving Klahr 1

    Research style and methods Piaget's research style has several characteristic features. First and foremost is a very closely linked interaction between what we would currently call the "experimenter" and the "subject".

  9. Piaget's theory of cognitive development

    Jean Piaget in Ann Arbor. Piaget's theory of cognitive development, or his genetic epistemology, is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence.It was originated by the Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980). The theory deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use it.

  10. Jean Piaget: Life and Theory of Cognitive Development

    Overview Early Life Career and Theories Contributions Influence on Psychology Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologist. You may have heard of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, for which he is famous. This theory looks at how children develop intellectually throughout the course of childhood. At a Glance

  11. Theories of cognitive development: From Piaget to today

    Jean Piaget, by the scope, depth and importance of his work, is undoubtedly the major figure of twentieth-century psychology. As Flavell, Miller, and Miller wrote in their textbook about theories of development: "theories of cognitive development can be divided into B. P. (Before Piaget), and A. P. (After Piaget), because of the impact of his ...

  12. Jean Piaget's Theory Of Cognitive Development

    Piaget's identified five characteristic indicators of adolescent cognitive development and named them as follows: 1) formal operations, 2) hypothetico-deductive reasoning, 3) propositional thought, 4) the imaginary audience, and 5) the personal fable. A more detailed explanation of Piaget's theory can be found in the Child & Adolescent Overview ...

  13. Revisiting Piaget: A perspective from studies of children's problem

    Abstract This chapter is clear that, when presented with an arbitrary and novel problem-solving challenge, many six-year-olds and some five-year -olds are able to look ahead six moves into the future, much more so than Piaget claimed in his own work on problem solving.

  14. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: The Formal ...

    1. Deductive Logic - this has to do with being able to think in broader terms. Children at this stage can come up with solutions to problems using logic and general principles. This skill is useful in Science and Math. 2. Abstract Thought - has to do with being able to think about abstract ideas.

  15. Cognitive Development

    Problem-solving and cognitive development progress from establishing object permanence, causality, and symbolic thinking with concrete (hands-on) learning to abstract thinking and embedding of implicit (unconscious) to explicit memory development. Birth to two months: The optical focal length is approximately 10 inches at birth.

  16. Adolescence (Chapter 11)

    David Moshman Edited by Ulrich Müller , Jeremy I. M. Carpendale and Leslie Smith Chapter Get access Share Cite Summary The adolescent stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development begins - typically about the age of 11 or 12 years - with the emergence of what he called "formal reasoning" or "formal operations."

  17. Piaget's Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

    Theories Piaget's Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development By Dr. Serhat Kurt Posted on September 21, 2023 Reading Time: 7 minutes In Piaget's formal operational stage, which begins at around the age of 11 and continues until later teenage years, children undergo a crucial mental transformation.

  18. PDF Piaget and the Pendulum

    Piaget's investigations into children's understanding of the laws governing the movement ... transcribed from the children's problem solving efforts, divided into the sequence ... Central to such an investigation isthe strategy of systematic experimentation which varies but one variableatatime while holding all others constant - the ...

  19. PDF Very Young Children's Acquisition of Systematic Problem-Solving ...

    (e.g., Bruner, Olver, & Greenfield 1966; Piaget 1928; Werner 1948). Considerable evidence consistent with these characterizations has been found (e.g., Smith & Kemler 1978). A research strategy that has proved espe-cially useful for investigating the acquisition of systematic problem-solving strategies is the rule-assessment approach. The goal ...

  20. The Development of Problem Solving in Young Children: A Critical

    Problem solving is a signature attribute of adult humans, but we need to understand how this develops in children. Tool use is proposed as an ideal way to study problem solving in children less than 3 years of age because overt manual action can reveal how the child plans to achieve a goal. Motor errors are as informative as successful actions. Research is reviewed on intentional actions ...

  21. Jean Piagets theory of Cognitive Development

    Stages of Cognitive Development. According to Jean Piaget, stages of development takes place via the interaction between natural capacities and environmental happenings, and children experience a series of stages (Wellman, 2011). The sequence of these stages remains same across cultures. Each child goes through the same stages of cognitive development in life but with a different rate.

  22. Very Young Children's Acquisition of Systematic Problem-solving

    RIcARws, D. DEAN, and SIEGLER, ROBERT S. Very Young Children's Acquisition of Systematic Problem-solving Strategies. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1981, 52, 1318-1321. The purpose of this study was to identify some of the experiences that might lead to a frequently noted change in the form of young children's problem solving: the transition from less to more systematic strategies. The effects of 2 types ...