how to write an article pet 2020

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• B1 Preliminary (PET)
• B1 Preliminary for Schools
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B1 preliminary (pet) writing.

Two parts - 45 minutes

• Writing part 1: write an email
• Writing part 2: write an article OR a story

Scoring The Writing section is worth 25% of the total score for the exam.

• Writing part 1 is marked out of 20
• Writing part 2 is marked out of 20
• Communicative Achievement
• Organisation

How to prepare for B1 Preliminary (PET) Writing

• read the instructions carefully before you start each section
• think about the timing. Spend 25 minutes on each part
• study these vocabulary topics
• study grammar at B1 level
• practise writing short texts, including emails

Writing tests

• part 1 - email
• part 1 - email 2
• part 2 - article
• part 2 - story

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B1 preliminary exam format.

B1 Preliminary is made up of four papers developed to test students’ English skills. You can see exactly what’s in each paper below.

The formats below are the same for both the paper-based and computer-based exams and digital exams. Please note, during March 2024 we will be moving from our current computer-based exam delivery to Cambridge English Qualifications Digital, which will offer you even more benefits. Information on the switch and what this means for you can be found on our Cambridge English Qualifications Digital page.

• openbook Reading
• pencil Writing
• playlist Listening
• megaphone Speaking

openbook What’s in the Reading paper?

The B1 Preliminary Reading paper has six parts. There are different types of texts and questions.

Part 1 (Multiple choice)

Part 2 (Matching)

Part 3 (Multiple choice)

Part 4 (Gapped text)

Part 5 (Multiple choice cloze)

Part 6 (Open cloze)

pencil What’s in the Writing paper?

The B1 Preliminary paper has two parts. You have to show that you can write different types of text in English.

Part 1 (Writing an email)

Part 2 (Choice between an article or a story)

playlist What’s in the Listening paper?

The B1 Preliminary Listening paper has four parts. For each part, you have to listen to a recorded text or texts and answer some questions. You hear each recording twice.

Part 2 (Multiple choice)

Part 3 (Gap fill)

Part 4 (Multiple choice)

megaphone What’s in the Speaking paper?

The B1 Preliminary Speaking test has four parts and you take it together with another candidate. There are two examiners. One of the examiners talks to you and the other examiner listens.

Part 1 (Interview)

Part 2 (Extended turn)

Part 3 (Discussion)

Part 4 (General conversation)

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Breakout English

Preliminary PET Writing Part 1 – Improve a letter

For Cambridge B1 candidates as of January 2020, Preliminary PET Writing Part 1 is always a letter. The candidate is provided a short letter which includes questions and prompts that the candidate must include in their answer. Sometimes the challenge of Preliminary Writing Part 1 isn’t writing a letter in the correct style or in the limited time. The challenge is to produce a letter that includes high-quality language, linking and communicates the writer’s ideas effectively. Without these elements, it’s difficult to score in the higher bands on the B1 Cambridge Writing Scales.

Letters are a good writing because the prompt indicates exactly what you need to include in your answer. However, the problem with letters is that it can be a challenge to show off your level of English. I find many of my students at B1 level don’t push themselves to use complex language. We may have just come out of a week long slog through relative clauses or conditionals, but then their letter comes back to me written entirely in the present simple.

I found this to be especially true of younger students who were going to take the Preliminary For Schools exam and this activity was designed with the For Schools version of the exam in mind. For that reason, it uses the topics of school and free time. Despite this, I think it could still be a practical activity for adult students. You could even challenge them to use the past tense and recall their school days!

The Materials

With this activity, get your students to improve a letter use all of the language available to them. Insist on accuracy of basic language and push them to use complex language that will impress at B1 level.

EXAM PART: Preliminary PET Writing Part 1 – Letter

EXAM SKILLS: Using a range of language in writing

TOPIC:  free time, school

TIME: 45 minutes

PREPARATION: One copy of the worksheet per student

Writing the Perfect Email for B1 Preliminary (PET)

Luis @ kse academy.

• noviembre 14, 2019

As we’ve already seen in the B1 Writing Guide (in Spanish), updated for the 2020 changes , the Writing component consists of 2 parts. The first one is an email whereas the second one is a story or an article, as you can choose which to do. For this reason, in this post I’m going to teach you how to write an email at B1 level for your Preliminary (PET) exam .

Email structure

Saying goodbye.

Este artículo también está disponible en castellano.

How to Write an Email for B1 Preliminary (PET)

In order to know the steps to write an email for this B1 exam , the first thing we need to do is to find out what the instructions are like and know what you’re expected to do. And even though we saw this in the B1 Writing guide (in Spanish), we will now go over it again and dive in even deeper.

Instructions for Writing B1 Preliminary Part 1: Email

In this part of the test, you are given an email from an English friend or relative, and you are asked to respond to it in about 100 words . This email contains annotations which help you identify exactly what you need to respond to.

As regards the topics, they’re usually not very difficult, as you’re expected to write at an intermediate level, about topics you are familiar with: sports, hobbies, TV programmes, the weather, your town/city, etc. Here’s an example taken from Cambridge English sample papers :

As you can see in the example above, taken from Cambridge’s official website, we have received an email from a person so-called Sandy , who is a friend of ours. In addition, we have made some annotations, which are the points we need to address in your email:

• Say which I prefer
• No, because…
• Ask Sandy…

In this sense, Cambridge is making this task easier, as we definitely won’t go blank and they are pointing out the structure that our email should have , which we will see in the following section.

The first thing you need to know is the different parts of an email , and these are:

• Greetings:  we greet  the other person (i.e. say «hi» or «hello»).
• Opening paragraph:  we react to the other person’s news and ask them how they are feeling and whatever else you feel is appropriate.
• Main paragraph 1:  in this paragraph we deal with the first important point, which we can identify in the instructions.
• Main paragraph 2: if there is a different point to deal with, this paragraph will do so.
• (We might have more main paragraphs, depending on the task.)
• Closing paragraph: in this paragraph we «start» to say goodbye by wishing the other person well and asking them to reply to your email.
• Goodbye: we use a short expression to say goodbye.
• Signature:  we sign the email with our name.

In general, all emails must follow the same structure, and also, I recommend you following these two pieces of advice::

• Don’t write From: y To: , as it is completely unnecessary and Cambridge won’t penalise you. Also, you’re saving words which you can use in the body of your email.
• Don’t write a subject , for the same reason as before.

Now that we know the different parts of an email, we should see an example.

Example Email for PET Writing Part 1

Let’s take a look at the following example of a Preliminary (PET) task answer for Writing Part 1 , where we can see an answer to the sample task we saw above:

In the example above, you can see the different parts of an email well defined. It’s important that your writing is visually appealing , apart from having good grammar and vocabulary. This means that the paragraphs should be well defined , with a space in between, and that you should know when to break lines. This is specially important after greetings, after opening and closing paragraphs, and after saying goodbye. This will make your text visually appealing, as it will look like a real email.

Expressions to use in your email

In this section, we are going to focus on different expressions you can use in the different parts of the email . While the main paragraphs will vary completely depending on the topic of your writing, most of the other parts in the email can be practised and memorised almost completely. Let’s take a look:

In order to start your email in Writing Part 1 for Cambridge English: Preliminary (PET) , you can use different expressions, which are really typical and easy to remember. We have 3 basic ways to greet in this kind of writing, which is usually for a friend or family member:

• Hi John, 
• Hello John,

Notice how «hi» is less formal than «hello» or «dear». Also, don’t forget to write a comma (,) right after greeting your friend or relative. After greeting the addressee (i.e. the person who will read the email), you must start the opening paragraph in a new line .

Opening paragraph

The opening paragraph is the place to react to your friend’s or relative’s email . In order to do so, you can use a number of different expressions. Here we have some examples:

• It’s nice / great / good to hear from you. 
• It’s nice / great / good  to read your email. 
• I’m glad to hear your news. 
• I’m excited about…  (your news.)
• It’s great to hear that…
• I’m sorry to hear that…
• I’m really sorry to read your news. 
• Thanks a lot for writing!
• It was good to receive your email. 
• Thank you very much for your email. 

And many more. Also, it’s a good idea to ask your friend or relative how they are feeling , which you can do like this:

• Hope you are doing well. 
• How’s it going? 
• How are you (doing)?
• How are things (going)?

You can also add some information that you think is relevant or necessary, but don’t expand this paragraph very much, because the important information must go in the main paragraphs .

Main paragraphs

For the main paragraphs, there aren’t any fixed expressions which you must use, as it depends mostly on what you have to write about. However, you should try to make use of connectors and appropriate punctuation . So let’s take a look at  common useful connectors and the punctuation we use them with:

• … and… :  to connect two similar things or ideas.

I love reading and listening to music. My favourite meal is fish and chips.

• …, but… : to connect two contrasting ideas.

I love watching Tv , but I don’t have a favourite show. I am reading a book, but I don’t remember the title.

• . However, … : to connect contrasting ideas.

Last month, I went to the cinema . However, I didn’t enjoy the movie. I am a very big fan of this author . However, I haven’t read his last novel.

• Moreover, … : to add more information about something.
• … because… : to justify an opinion or idea.

My mum is the perfect cook because she knows a lot of recipes and has plenty of experience. Moreover, she experiments with different ingredients all the time.

• . Because of that, … : to justify an opinion, fact or idea.

My mum likes to cook using new ingredients all the time. Because of that, she creates original dishes every month.

• . As for…/ Regarding…  : to switch to a new topic. For instance, you can use this connector to start the second main paragraph.

As for/Regarding why I like this cookery show, I think it’s because it’s a great way to see new recipes.

• Time linkers: then, after that, yesterday, this morning, last summer, etc. 

Last night, I watched a very good action film.

With many connectors, we typically use a comma (,) after it when we start a sentence (e.g.: However, Last night, Moreover, etc. ).

Closing paragraph

As we mentioned earlier, a closing paragraph in this Writing part 3 is used to start saying goodbye to the addressee and to ask for a response to your email. So we can use the following expressions:

• Well, it’s time to say goodbye. 
• Anyway, I have to go now. 
• Well, it’s time to go. 
• Anyway, gotta go. 
• I really hope to hear from you soon. 
• I’m looking forward to hearing from you. 
• I hope you write back soon. 
• Make sure you write back soon. 

Also, if you still have to write more words, you can add a question for a subsequent email. This question should be related to the topic of your piece of writing.

There are many ways in English to close an informal email. The most frequently used ones are the following:

• Best wishes,
• Sincerely, 
• Take care, 
• All my love, 
• Lots of love, 
• See you soon, 
• Regards, 

Notice how there is a comma (,) after each of the phrases . Also, after writing any of these sentences, make sure you write your name on a different line . And write your name without a full stop!

Another example of an email at B1 level

Now that we know what expressions we should be using in our writing, we are going to take a look at another task and a sample answer. In this case, this is an example of an old task, but the email follows the same rules. Pay close attention to how it’s structured and how its paragraphs are well defined and separated:

Notice how the expressions in bold  are used. Whenever you write an email, you should think about this type of expressions and make sure you use them appropriately .

Top 5 Tips for writing an Email for B1 Preliminary (PET)

• Learn and memorise a set of expressions . Make sure you already know a set of expressions to use in your greetings, opening and closing paragraphs, and to say goodbye. This will save you a lot of time while doing a task, and you will avoid making silly mistakes as you will already know the expressions by heart.
• Write a well-structured and visually-appealing email . One of the things Cambridge English examiners pay attention to is the organisation of your piece writing, so make sure not to write a messy email. Also, remember that  punctuation matters , so be sure to separate your sentences with stops and commas and don’t write excessively long sentences.
• Brainstorm, write, read and edit . Before starting to write your email, brainstorm a couple of things and write down some ideas. This can include vocabulary related to the topic. For example, if you have to write about TV shows, you can write down thinks like «contestants», «cookery show», «prize», etc. Then, write out your email. After that, read it and look for possible mistakes or opportunities for improvement (e.g.: adding descriptive adjectives, rephrasing sentences, etc.).
• Read carefully and identify the task . Don’t start writing right away. Make sure you read the task carefully and that you identify exactly what you are being asked. Sometimes, we don’t pay attention to the instructions and we end up writing about something different. This will mean losing points, in a very silly way, I must say.
• Experiment at home, be conservative in the exam . Homework is the best chance to be creative and experiment different ways to express yourself. So make sure you try your hardest to keep improving when you write at home. On the other hand, when you’re doing an exam, don’t risk trying out new words or expressions, as you may be making a terrible mistake. So be safe in your exam and stick to what you already know works .

Did you find this post useful? Did you? Well, don’t forget to comment and share. And if you love the English language, follow KSE Academy on Facebook, Twitter & YouTube! And don’t forget to subscribe to the blog!

Oh, and don’t forget to keep smiling!

44 comentarios en “Writing the Perfect Email for B1 Preliminary (PET)”

EXCELLENT HELP FOR THE NEW 2020 PET FORMAT. THANKS A LOT

Hi Liliana! Thanks a lot for your comment! Take care!

Grazie mille di tutto, saluti dall’ Italia

you are great Luis. Thanks a lot for your good work. Paqui Muñoz Mendoza

Thank you very much, Paqui. It’s great to receive comments like this from time to time.

Thanks Luis

Your help was so useful. Thanks.

Thanks for your comment, Rocío. Take care!

Thank you so much!

Thank you so much for sharing. It’s very useful and helpful.

Thank you! 🙂

Nice work, Luis! I’m continuing my classes online during the coronavirus, and this post provides a great, visually-appealing review of this part of the new test. I will be sending my students here next week to help with their homework!

Thank you very much for your comment. Hope your students find it useful. Take care!

The best email. that I found. Thanks.

Thank you, Angelines! 🙂

Super clear!!!! Thank you very much. Claudia

Thank you, Claudia! 🙂

EXCELLENT GUIDE!! THANK YOU SO MUCH FOR SHARING IT

Thank you for your comment, Paola. 🙂

You’re welcome! 🙂

Thank you soo much, im 12 and doing the test, this is the day before the test and your info was soo usfull, have a good evening

Hi, Cameron. Thanks a lot for your comment. Sorry for taking so long to reply. I hope you passed your test! 😀

Absolutely clear guidelines for Writing Part 1 Email Thanks a lot for sharing it!!!

Thank you so much for your comment! 🙂

Great work! Thank you for sharing

Thank you for reading, Susana! 🙂

Happy New Year! Useful tips, good job. Thanks!

Thank you so much for your feedback. Take care and Happy New Year to you too!

THANK YOU VERY MUCH MY DEARRRRRR. I’m having the Cambridge PET exam tomorrow and I’m really nervous… Wish me luck!

Hey, Camila! Hope your exam was fine! Don’t forget to come back here and let us know your score! 🙂

I love you Luis

Haha, thank you, Carlos! Love u too!

Precious guide and helpful insight, thank you.

Thank you very much! 🙂

Great post, thanks!

Thank you, Juliana! 🙂

As an exam coach myself, I really want to congratulate you for this wonderful and useful site. It’s great to see an updated B1 Preliminary writing guide; I’m using it right now with the candidates I teach. Keep up the great work!

Hey, Lenin. Thanks a lot for such a nice comment. I hope your students find it useful. If you ever have any feedback, let me know. Thanks again!

Extremely detailed and useful guidance for those who is taking the PET exams! Thanks a lot.

OLIVIA 15/1/2023 A LAS 11:49 Hello, happy new year.

As an exam preparation teacher myself, I would like to thank you for all your hard work. Yours is the best site I have found online with important tips and useful samples for our students. Keep up the great work! I really appreciate it!

Thank you very much for your comment, Tulia. 🙂

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Cambridge B1 Preliminary (PET): Reading

Introduction

I often see my students with sad faces when I want to practise some of the reading tasks of the PET exam with them. They think that reading is boring or that it is very difficult so they lose motivation very quickly.

With the big update to the B1 Preliminary test in 2020 this will probably change. The whole exam makes more sense and PET is more related to the higher-level Cambridge English examinations like B2 First or C1 Advanced. Also, the tasks are not only about reading because they test your grammar and vocabulary as well.

It is really important that you know what the different parts of the Reading paper look like, what exactly you have to do, how to prepare and, of course, the best tips and tricks so that you can pass the exam easily.

In this article I’m going to give you a general overview over the PET Reading exam. You will learn about the structure of the exam and what each part is about.

Don’t get stressed

Before 2020, Reading and Writing were combined in one paper. With the last update Cambridge English split up the two and now you have six tasks with a total of 32 questions to answer and you only have 45 minutes to do all of it.

In order to be comfortable with this stressful time limit you have to study the right strategies and techniques to be efficient and effective when you go through the Reading paper of the PET exam. Luckily, you are in the right place. Keep reading and find out what the different tasks look like and some general strategies that might help you save time and feel cool, calm and collected when you take the test. 😉

The different parts of the Reading paper

In the PET exam there are four different parts which you have to do one by one in the exam:

Reading is quite difficult for many students because it is made of six different parts and you have to read a lot in a pretty short time (45 minutes), and it counts 25% towards your overall grade in B1 Preliminary.

The good thing is that you can use specific strategies and techniques to save time and to have a greater chance of getting good marks, but, first of all, let’s see what the different parts look like.

Part 1 – 3-option multiple choice

You get five short texts, for example notices or messages, which you might find in real life. For each text you have to choose the best option A, B or C.

Part 2 – Matching

In this task you get the descriptions of five people who all want to do, buy or experience something similar. Match each person to one of eight options.

Part 3 – 4-option multiple choice

In Part 3 of the PET Reading paper you read a longer text (see the example below) and answer five question. For each of those questions you choose from four options A, B, C or D.

Part 4 – Gapped text

Part 4 is one of the more difficult ones in B1 Preliminary. From the text five sentences have been removed. You need to choose from eight possible options A-H to fill the gaps.

Part 5 – 4-option multiple choice cloze

Again, there is a text for you to read. Six words have been removed and you choose from options A, B, C or D and fill the gaps.

Part 6 – Open cloze

This part is similar to Part 5, but you don’t get any options to choose from. Instead, you have to think of the word for each gap by yourself.

If you want to get more specific information about the different parts of the B1 Preliminary Reading paper, check out my other articles.

Strategies for PET Reading

All this information can be overwhelming and I understand I you feel a little stressed, but please don’t worry too much. I’m going to give you a few ideas to think about which can help you with your time management and your overall strategy going into the exam.

Think about the order of the tasks

In B1 Preliminary you don’t have to start with Part 1 and move through the exam the same way you find it in the paper. In fact, you can decide what order you prefer and this means that you can choose the perfect strategy for yourself.

For example, if you feel that you get tired quite quickly if you have to read longer texts, leave Part 1 until the end and start with the longer tasks like Parts 3 and 4. That way you might stay focused for a longer time.

Another possible way of thinking about it is to do the parts first that test your grammar and vocabulary (Parts 5 and 6) more than your general understanding of the text.

These are just two examples of how to look at the Reading paper, but make sure that you prepare a plan so you feel more confident when you take the actual exam.

Think about your timing

As described earlier, you only have 45 minutes to finish all the tasks in the Reading test. Included in this time period are a few minutes to transfer your answers onto the separate answer sheet, which leaves you with around 40 minutes for six tasks.

When you practise for the exam you should definitely time yourself to see which tasks take longer and which ones you can finish faster. With practice you will become more comfortable and develop a better feel for the different task types.

Once you’re in the exam you know how much time you have and when you should move on to the next task without feeling stressed and adding more pressure.

How to prepare for the Reading exam

Apart from the right strategies there are a few things that you can do to develop your language abilities (grammar and vocabulary) as well as your reading skills.

Don’t forget about language practice. Many students only focus on exam strategies and are then surprised when they realise that their grammar and vocabulary are not good enough for PET.

A great way to combine everything is, of course, to take classes where you can find people like you who want to get ready for B1 Preliminary. You get the chance to study together and help each other in preparation for the big day. In one of my articles about the PET exam I describe where you can find a good school. You can click here if you want to find out more.

Obviously, you should read regularly to improve your reading speed and skills like general or detailed understanding as well as your range of vocabulary. 10 minutes every day before going to bed or when you are on your way to or from school/work can already make a big difference.

If you want to practise and improve your grammar, I recommend a good book like English Grammar in Use. You can click here to check it out on Amazon.

Time to practise

Don’t waste any time. It is never too early to start preparing. Get the materials you need and practise so you won’t have any problems when it is time to take the official exam.

I hope my article helps you achieve your goal.

Lots of love,

Teacher Phill 🙂

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America has legislated itself into competing red, blue versions of education

American states passed a blizzard of education laws and policies over the past six years that aim to reshape how K-12 schools and colleges teach and present issues of race, sex and gender to the majority of the nation’s students — with instruction differing sharply by states’ political leanings, according to a Washington Post analysis .

See which states are restricting, requiring education on race and sex

Three-fourths of the nation’s school-aged students are now educated under state-level measures that either require more teaching on issues like race, racism, history, sex and gender, or which sharply limit or fully forbid such lessons, according to a sweeping Post review of thousands of state laws, gubernatorial directives and state school board policies. The restrictive laws alone affect almost half of all Americans aged 5 to 19.

How The Post is tracking education bills

Since 2017, 38 states have adopted 114 such laws, rules or orders, The Post found. The majority of policies are restrictive in nature: 66 percent circumscribe or ban lessons and discussions on some of society’s most sensitive topics, while 34 percent require or expand them. In one example, a 2023 Kentucky law forbids lessons on human sexuality before fifth grade and outlaws all instruction “exploring gender identity.” On the other hand, a 2021 Rhode Island law requires that all students learn “African Heritage and History” before high school graduation.

The Post included in its analysis only measures that could directly affect what students learn. Thus, 100 of the laws in The Post’s database apply only to K-12 campuses, where states have much greater power to shape curriculums. At public institutions of higher education — where courts have held that the First Amendment protects professors’ right to teach what they want — the laws instead target programs like student or faculty trainings or welcome sessions.

Tell The Post: How are education laws, restrictions affecting your school?

The divide is sharply partisan. The vast majority of restrictive laws and policies, close to 9o percent, were enacted in states that voted for Donald Trump in the 2020 presidential election, The Post found. Meanwhile, almost 80 percent of expansive laws and policies were enacted in states that voted for Joe Biden in 2020.

The explosion of laws regulating school curriculums is unprecedented in U.S. history for its volume and scope, said Jonathan Zimmerman, a University of Pennsylvania professor who studies education history and policy. Controversy and debate over classroom lessons is nothing new, Zimmermann said, but states have never before stepped in so aggressively to set rules for local schools. School districts have traditionally had wide latitude to shape their lessons.

He said it remains an open question whether all laws will translate to curriculum changes, predicting some schools and teachers may refuse to alter their pedagogy. Still, a nationally representative study from the Rand Corp. released this year found that 65 percent of K-12 teachers report they are limiting instruction on “political and social issues.”

“What the laws show is that we have extremely significant differences over how we imagine America,” Zimmerman said. “State legislatures have now used the power of law to try to inscribe one view, and to prevent another. And so we’re deeply divided in America.”

In practice, these divisions mean that what a child learns about, say, the role slavery played in the nation’s founding — or the possibility of a person identifying as nonbinary — may come to depend on whether they live in a red or blue state.

Legislators advancing restrictive education laws argue they are offering a corrective to what they call a recent left-wing takeover of education. They contend that, in the past decade or so, teachers and professors alike began forcing students to adopt liberal viewpoints on topics ranging from police brutality to whether gender is a binary or a spectrum.

Tennessee state Rep. John Ragan (R), who sponsored or co-sponsored several laws in his state that limit or ban instruction and trainings dealing with race, bias, sexual orientation and gender identity on both K-12 and college campuses, said the legislation he helped pass does not restrict education.

“It is restricting indoctrination,” Ragan said. Under his state’s laws, he said, “the information presented is factually accurate and is in fact something worth knowing.”

Those advancing expansive legislation, by contrast, argue they are fostering conditions in which students from all backgrounds will see themselves reflected in lessons. This will make it easier for every student to learn and be successful, while teaching peers to be tolerant of one another’s differences, said Washington state Sen. Marko Liias (D).

Liias was the architect of a law his state passed last month that requires schools to adopt “inclusive curricula” featuring the histories, contributions and perspectives of the “historically marginalized,” including “people from various racial, ethnic, and religious backgrounds, people with differing learning needs, people with disabilities [and] LGBTQ people.” He was inspired to propose the bill after hearing from educators who wanted to create more welcoming classrooms and by memories of his own experiences as a queer student in the 1980s and 1990s, when, he said, there were no LGBTQ role models taught or accepted in schools.

“When schools are inclusive broadly of all the identities brought to the classroom, then everybody thrives and does better,” Liias said.

To construct its database of education laws, The Post analyzed more than 2,200 bills, policies, gubernatorial directives and state school board rules introduced since 2017. The Post identified regulations for review by examining state legislative databases, education law trackers maintained by national bipartisan nonprofits and the websites of various advocacy groups that monitor curriculum legislation.

How curriculum policies took hold

Some blue states began enacting expansive education laws in the late 2010s. From 2017 to 2020, 10 states passed legislation or rules that required schools to start teaching about the history of underrepresented groups such as Black Americans, Pacific Islanders or LGBTQ Americans, The Post found .

State and school leaders were drawing on more than a dozen studies published from the 1990s to 2017 that found student performance, attendance and graduate rates rise when children see people like them included in curriculum, said Jennifer Berkshire , a Yale lecturer on education studies.

“They were thinking, ‘You know, our curriculums aren’t representative enough,’” Berkshire said. “The argument was, if we’re going to realize the goal of full rights and civil participation for kids, we need to do things differently.”

Fourteen of these laws, or 36 percent, came in a rush in 2021, the year after the police killing of George Floyd sparked massive demonstrations and a national reckoning over racism. At the time, activists, teachers, parents and high school students across America were urging schools teach more Black history and feature more Black authors.

Of the expansive laws and policies The Post analyzed, the majority — 69 percent — require or expand education on race or racial issues, especially on Black history and ethnic studies. About a quarter add or enhance education on both LGBTQ and racial issues. Just 8 percent focus solely on LGBTQ lives and topics.

But the onslaught of restrictive legislation in red states began in 2021, too, also inspired in many cases by parent concerns over curriculums.

Anxiety first stirred due to coronavirus pandemic-era school shutdowns as some mothers and fathers — granted an unprecedented glimpse into lessons during the era of school-by-laptop — found they did not like or trust what their children were learning.

Soon, some parents were complaining that lessons were biased toward left-leaning views and too focused on what they saw as irrelevant discussions of race, gender and sexuality — laments taken up by conservative pundits and politicians. National groups like Moms for Liberty formed to call out and combat left-leaning teaching in public schools.

Their fears became legislation with speed: Mostly red states passed 26 restrictive education laws and policies in 2021; 19 such laws or policies the next year and 25 more the year after that.

“If you’ve got parents upset at what they’re seeing, they’re going to go to school board meetings and take it up with their legislators,” said Robert Pondiscio , a senior fellow studying education at the conservative American Enterprise Institute. “And legislators will do what they do: pass laws.”

How the restrictions and expansions work

The plurality of restrictive laws, 47 percent, target both education on race and sex. About a third solely affect education on gender identity and sexuality, while 21 percent solely affect education on race.

Almost 40 percent of these laws work by granting parents greater control of the curriculum — stipulating that they must be able to review, object to or remove lesson material, as well as opt out of instruction. Schools have long permitted parents to weigh in on education, often informally; but under many of the new laws, parental input has more weight and is mandatory.

Another almost 40 percent of the laws forbid schools from teaching a long list of often-vague concepts related to race, sex or gender.

These outlawed concepts usually include the notion that certain merits, values, beliefs, status or privileges are tied to race or sex; or the theory that students should feel ashamed or guilty due to their race, sex or racial past. One such law, passed in Georgia in 2022, forbids teaching that “an individual, solely by virtue of his or her race, bears individual responsibility for actions committed in the past by other individuals of the same race.”

At the college level, among the measures passed in recent years is a 2021 Oklahoma law that prohibits institutions of higher education from holding “mandatory gender or sexual diversity training or counseling,” as well as any “orientation or requirement that presents any form of race or sex stereotyping.”

By contrast, a 2023 California measure says state community college faculty must employ “teaching, learning and professional practices” that reflect “anti-racist principles.”

Some experts predicted the politically divergent instruction will lead to a more divided society.

“When children are being taught very different stories of what America is, that will lead to adults who have a harder time talking to each other,” said Rachel Rosenberg, a Hartwick College assistant professor of education.

But Pondiscio said there is always tension in American society between the public interest in education and parents’ interest in determining the values transmitted to their children. The conflict veers from acute to chronic, he said, and currently it’s in an acute phase. “But I don’t find it inappropriate. I think it is a natural part of democratic governance and oversight,” Pondiscio said.

He added, “One man’s ‘chilling effect’ is another man’s appropriate circumspections.”

Could sharing a bedroom with your pets be keeping you from getting a good night’s sleep?

Assistant Professor of Psychology, Trinity College

Disclosure statement

Brian N. Chin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Trinity College provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

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Sleeping with your dog in the same room could be negatively affecting your sleep quality, according to my team’s recently published research in Scientific Reports .

We recruited a nationally representative sample of more than 1,500 American adults who completed questionnaires assessing their sleep habits. Overall, about half of the participants reported co-sleeping with pets – defined in our study as sleeping in the same room with your pet for at least part of the night.

Next, our research team compared the sleep habits of people who did and didn’t co-sleep with pets. Our analyses revealed that participants who co-slept with pets had poorer sleep quality and more insomnia symptoms than those who did not. These findings persisted even after accounting for demographic differences between these groups. When considering pet type, we found evidence for a negative effect on sleep when co-sleeping with dogs but no evidence for a negative effect on sleep when co-sleeping with cats.

Surprisingly, 93% of people in our study who co-slept with their pets believed that their pets had either a positive or neutral overall effect on their sleep. Although more research is needed, these findings could suggest that most people are unaware of the potential negative effects their pets may have on their sleep.

Why it matters

Most pet owners report that their pets have a generally positive effect on their mental health . Pets can improve their owners’ health in numerous ways during the day, such as by encouraging physical activity, promoting a daily routine and providing love and companionship.

However, our study fills an important knowledge gap by indicating that co-sleeping with pets can affect sleep quality. Good sleep is a pillar of health and wellness . Even though pets may have an overall positive effect on mental health, it is possible that some of this benefit may be undermined if they are also causing you to lose sleep at night.

Although some people report that co-sleeping with their pets can provide them with a sense of comfort or intimacy , it is important for people sharing a bedroom with their pets to be aware of their potential to serve as a source of nighttime noise, heat or movement that can disrupt your ability to fall or stay asleep .

What still isn’t known

Survey-based studies like ours are unable to prove that co-sleeping with pets causes disrupted sleep, although there is some evidence suggesting that this could be the case.

One important factor that our study did not assess was whether participants were also co-sleeping with other people like a spouse or child. Previous research suggests that sharing a bed with other people can also affect our sleep and that the mental health benefits of pet ownership could be stronger for people with a romantic partner .

What’s next

It probably isn’t realistic for most people to just stop co-sleeping with their pets. So, what should someone do to improve their sleep if they already share a bed with their pets?

Some expert tips include choosing a mattress that is large enough for you and your pets, washing and changing your bedding regularly, and establishing and maintaining a consistent bedtime routine with your pets. Further research is needed to identify more specific habits and routines that pet owners can adopt to ensure a good night’s sleep when sharing the bedroom with their pets.

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A big airline is relaxing its pet policy to let owners bring the companion and a rolling carry-on

FILE - An American Airlines grounds crew unloads a dog from the cargo area of an arriving flight, Aug. 1, 2012, at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York. American Airlines is relaxing part of its pet policy to let owners bring their companion and a full-size carry-on bag into the cabin. (AP Photo/Mary Altaffer, File)

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FORT WORTH, Texas (AP) — American Airlines is relaxing part of its pet policy to let owners bring their companion and a full-size carry-on bag into the cabin.

Until this week, people who carried a pet into the cabin — which involves paying a $150 fee — could only have one other small item that fit under the seat.

Anything bigger, like a carry-on bag with wheels, needed to be checked — for a $35 fee. Or they could put the pet in the cargo hold.

Now American is letting passengers bring a pet in the cabin and also bring a regular carry-on bag or a personal item — just not both bags.

The old policy struck some pet owners as unfair, since they were already paying a pet fee.

Gary Leff, a travel blogger who first wrote about the change, recalled traveling years ago with a Yorkshire terrier.

“It was always frustrating that the dog counted as the carry-on even though I was paying the extra (pet) fee that was sometimes more than the ticket for me,” he said Friday.

Leff said he thinks American’s change will reduce the urge for travelers to falsely claim that their pet is a service animal that flies for free.

An American spokeswoman confirmed that the rules change took effect Thursday.

“We made the change to provide a more convenient and comfortable experience to customers whose pets fly American,” she said.

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How to Invest in OpenAI's ChatGPT (Updated 2024)

April 08, 2024 — 04:30 pm EDT

Written by Melissa Pistilli for Investing News Network  ->

OpenAI’s ChatGPT is one of the latest technological breakthroughs in the artificial intelligence (AI) space. But is there a good investment case for a technology that has become so controversial?

This emerging technology is representative of a niche subsector of the AI industry known as generative AI — systems that can generate text, images or sounds in response to prompts given by users.

Precedence Research expects the global AI market to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 19 percent to reach US$2.57 trillion by 2032. Just how much of an impact OpenAI’s ChatGPT will have on this space is hard to predict, but S&P Global suggested in December 2023 that the total market revenue of generative AI as a whole will see a CAGR of 57.9 percent through 2028, increasing from US$3.7 billion last year to US$36.36 billion in 2028.

“The key trend last year was the rise of generative AI, and 2023 will go down as one of the most exciting years for AI yet! With the launch of ChatGPT late in 2022, the true scale of its disruptive potential was more realized across the world in 2023,” said Naseem Husain , senior vice president and exchange-traded fund (ETF) strategist at Horizons ETFs. “Its success has sparked a wave of generative and chat AI models, from Midjourney to Grok.”

Of course, OpenAi has also generated a lot of controversy, such as fears over job destruction and targeted disinformation campaigns . And let’s not forget the odd and abrupt, however brief, ousting of OpenAI CEO Sam Altman .

Many lawsuits have emerged as well. Multiple news outlets , including the the New York Times , have launched copyright lawsuits against OpenAI, and some of the plaintiffs are also seeking damages from the private tech firm’s very public partner Microsoft (NASDAQ: MSFT ). Additionally, the Authors Guild, which represents a group of prominent authors , launched a class-action lawsuit against OpenAI that is calling for a licensing system that would allow authors to opt out of having their books used to train AI, and would require AI companies to pay for the material they do use.

With all of that said, there's still a lot of excitement surrounding generative AI technology. Many investors are wondering if it's possible to invest in OpenAI's ChatGPT, and if there are other ways to invest in generative AI. Here the Investing News Network (INN) answers those questions and more, shedding light on this new landscape.

​What is OpenAI's ChatGPT?

Created by San Francisco-based tech lab OpenAI, ChatGPT is a generative AI software application that uses a machine learning technique called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF) to emulate human-written conversations based on a large range of user prompts. This kind of software is better known as an AI chatbot.

ChatGPT learns language by training on texts gleaned from across the internet, including online encyclopedias, books, academic journals, news sites and blogs. Based on this training, the AI chatbot generates text by making predictions about which words (or tokens) can be strung together to produce the most suitable response.

More than a million people engaged with ChatGPT within the first week of its launch for free public testing on November 30, 2022. Many were in awe of the chatbot’s seemingly natural language capabilities, not only in terms of understanding questions, but also because of its human-like responses. Users felt as if they were having a conversation with a human.

Besides being an excellent conversation partner, ChatGPT can write engaging short stories , develop catchy marketing materials, solve complicated math problems and even create code in various programming languages.

Based on this success, OpenAI has created a more powerful version of the ChatGPT system called GPT-4 , which was released in March 2023. It is currently only available to paid ChatGPT subscribers and Microsoft Copilot users .

This iteration of ChatGPT can accept visual inputs , is much more precise and can display a higher level of expertise in various subjects. Because of this, GPT-4 can describe images in vivid detail and ace standardized tests.

Unlike its predecessor, GPT-4 doesn't have any time limits on what information it can access; however, AI researcher and professor Dr. Oren Etzioni has said that the chatbot is still terrible at discussing the future and generating new ideas. It also hasn't lost its tendency to deliver incorrect information with too high a degree of confidence.

​What is Elon Musk's relationship to OpenAI?

DIA TV / Shutterstock

OpenAI was founded in 2015 by Altman, its current CEO, as well as Tesla's (NASDAQ: TSLA ) Elon Musk and other big-name investors, such as venture capitalist Peter Thiel and LinkedIn co-founder Reid Hoffman. Musk left his position on OpenAI's board of directors in 2018 to focus on Tesla and its pursuit of autonomous vehicle technology.

A few days after ChatGPT became available for public testing, Musk took to X , formerly known as Twitter, to say, “ChatGPT is scary good. We are not far from dangerously strong AI.” That same day, he announced that X had shut the door on OpenAI’s access to its database so it could no longer use it for RLHF training.

His reason: “OpenAI was started as open-source & non-profit. Neither are still true.”

Furthering his feud with OpenAI, Musk filed a lawsuit against the company in March 2024 for an alleged breach of contract. The crux of his complaint was that OpenAI has broken the "founding agreement" made between the founders (Altman, Greg Brockman and himself) that the company would remain a non-profit. Altman and OpenAI have denied there was such an agreement and that Musk was keen on an eventual for-profit structure.

​Is ChatGPT revolutionary or hype?

Is ChatGPT a revolutionary technology or just another hyped-up tech fad that will flop, much in the way of Google Glass or the Segway ? It may be too early to tell, but as with any new technology, there are plenty of wrinkles to iron out.

One of the most challenging bugs to fix before ChatGPT can be deployed more widely is the chatbot’s propensity to respond with “plausible-sounding but incorrect or nonsensical answers," admits OpenAI .

Remember, its selection of which words to string together are actually predictions — not as fallible as mere guesses, but still fallible. Even the latest 4.0 version is “ still is not fully reliable (it “hallucinates” facts and makes reasoning errors),” says the company, which emphasizes that users should exercise caution when employing the technology.

Indeed, ChatGPT's failings can have dangerous real-life consequences. Among other negative applications, the tech can be used to spread misinformation, carry out phishing email scams or write malicious code. What’s more, the AI-based technology is prone to racial and gender-based biases. Not only has this language learning model contributed to the human-like quality of its responses, but it has also picked up on some of humanity’s shortcomings.

“ChatGPT was trained on the collective writing of humans across the world, past and present. This means that the same biases that exist in the data, can also appear in the model,” explains Garling Wu , staff writer for online technology publication MUO, in a September 2023 article. “In fact, users have shown how ChatGPT can give produce some terrible answers, some, for example, that discriminate against women. But that's just the tip of the iceberg; it can produce answers that are extremely harmful to a range of minority groups.”

On the flip side, an August 2023 study by the University of East Anglia identified a left-wing bias in ChatGPT. Researchers at the school said their work shows that ChatGPT "favors Democrats in the U.S., the Labour Party in the U.K., and president Lula da Silva of the Workers’ Party in Brazil," according to Forbes.

There’s also the fear among teachers that the technology is leading to an unwelcome rise in academic dishonesty, with students using ChatGPT to write essays or complete their science homework.

“Teachers and school administrators have been scrambling to catch students using the tool to cheat, and they are fretting about the havoc ChatGPT could wreak on their lesson plans,” writes New York Times tech columnist Kevin Roose .

Despite these concerns, we’re likely to see new iterations of ChatGPT — hopefully without the aforementioned bugs — as OpenAI has the backing of tech giant Microsoft.

Why is Microsoft investing in OpenAI? ​

Ascannio / Shutterstock

Since 2019, Microsoft has invested at least US$3 billion in OpenAI to help the small tech firm create its ultra-powerful AI chatbot, as reported by New York Times technology correspondents Cade Metz and Karen Weise.

Microsoft announced in mid-January 2023 that as part of the third phase of its partnership with OpenAI, it will make "a multiyear, multibillion dollar investment." Although the company hasn't disclosed the total amount of its latest spend, reports at the time indicated that US$10 billion is on the table . According to a February article from Reuters , OpenAI was recently valued at US$80 billion, meaning Microsoft's US$10 billion move would be huge. However, as of late 2023 there were rumors that OpenAI has only received a fraction of that purported investment.

How could Microsoft benefit from its investment? It seems the tech giant is hopeful advancements in generative AI may increase revenues for its Azure cloud computing business, as OpenAI officially licensed its technologies to Microsoft in 2020. Indeed, Pitchbook has described the deal as an “ unprecedented milestone ” for generative AI technology.

The strength of Microsoft’s confidence in OpenAI’s Altman was definitely on display in late November, when it quickly moved him to the payroll of its advanced AI research team after he was fired from OpenAI . Barely a week passed before Altman was back at the helm of OpenAI with major board changes, including the addition of Dee Templeton , Microsoft's vice president of technology and research partnerships and operations, as a non-voting observer.

​What's the future of OpenAI and ChatGPT?

The ChatGPT 3.5 platform is free to use, and can be accessed via the web. Those with an iPhone or iPad can also use ChatGPT through an app , and an Android version launched in July 2023 . OpenAI also launched a paid subscription, ChatGPT Plus for business use , in August 2023. ChatGPT Plus gives users access to the newest iteration, GPT-4.

In addition to Microsoft's use of the ChatGPT technology as part of Copilot, other companies are working with OpenAI to incorporate the technology into their platforms, including Canva, Duolingo (NASDAQ: DUOL ), Intercom, Salesforce (NYSE: CRM ), Scale, Stripe, and Upwork (NASDAQ: UPWK ).

As uptake increases, generative AI technology is replacing humans in the workplace, and will likely continue doing so in a number of fields, from content creation and customer service to transcription and translation services, and even in graphic design and paralegal fields. However, humans are hitting back, as evidenced by recent lawsuits launched against OpenAI and Microsoft. As mentioned, a growing group of prominent authors is suing the creator of ChatGPT and its financial backer for infringing on their copyright by using their books without permission to train the language models behind ChatGPT and other AI-based software.

The New York Times has also taken a stand by taking OpenAI and Microsoft to Manhattan Federal Court.

"Defendants seek to free-ride on the Times's massive investment in its journalism by using it to build substitutive products without permission or payment," states the complaint . "There is nothing 'transformative' about using the Times's content without payment to create products that substitute for the Times and steal audiences away from it."

What about the long-term goals for OpenAI and ChatGPT? Metz of the New York Times believes the end game is “artificial general intelligence, or AGI — a machine that can do anything the human brain can do.”

In keeping with this end goal, OpenAI made a major move by acquiring an AI creative firm with a deep talent bench, Global Illumination , in mid-August 2023. "Global Illumination is a company that has been leveraging AI to build creative tools, infrastructure, and digital experiences," states OpenAI on its website .

"The team previously designed and built products early on at Instagram and Facebook and have also made significant contributions at YouTube, Google, Pixar, Riot Games, and other notable companies."

In November 2023, OpenAI decided to give customers without coding skills the ability to create customized versions of its chatbot and access to large data sets for training. “OpenAI wants people to start innovating using the chatbots and creating special chatbots,” Hod Lipson, an engineering and data science professor at Columbia University, told CNBC .

Chatbot creators will eventually have the ability to share their custom chatbots through OpenAI’s GPT Store. “They’re really trying to create a marketplace, which will allow companies and people to innovate and play around with this incredible form of AI that they’ve just unleashed,” Lipson added.

What is Google's Bard AI?

Carl DMaster / Shutterstock

While ChatGPT has been generating major buzz, it's definitely not the only chatbot out there.

Notably, Alphabet (NASDAQ: GOOGL ) subsidiary Google launched its answer to ChatGPT in March 2023. Known as Bard AI , the chatbot is built on Google’s Language Model for Dialogue Applications (or LaMDA). Google CEO Sundar Pichai has described Bard as an “experimental conversational AI service … (that) seeks to combine the breadth of the world’s knowledge with the power, intelligence and creativity of our large language models.”

As with ChatGPT, users can key in a query, request or prompt and Bard will provide a human-like response. One way in which Bard may have had a leg up on the original ChatGPT is that the latter could only use data up to 2021, while the former can access up-to-date information online; this is less relevant now that GPT-4 no longer has this limitation.

However, Bard's ability to access current data hasn’t spared it from ChatGPT’s biggest folly: confidently stating misinformation as fact. The Verge reported that when asked about new discoveries from the James Webb Space Telescope, Google’s Bard “made a factual error in its very first demo.”

In early in 2024, Google launched the latest iteration of its Bard Advanced AI chatbot with a new name, Gemini AI. The new version is powered by Google's Gemini Ultra large language model.

​Which stocks will benefit the most from AI chatbot technology?

Other than companies directly tied to generative AI technology, which stocks are likely to get a boost from advances?

There are several verticals in the tech industry with indirect exposure to AI chatbot technology, such as semiconductors, network equipment providers, cloud providers, central processing unit manufacturers and internet of things.

Some of the publicly traded companies in these verticals include:

• Graphics processing unit leader Nvidia (NASDAQ: NVDA )
• The world's largest semiconductor chip manufacturer by revenue, Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (NYSE: TSM )
• Computer memory and data storage producer Micron Technology (NASDAQ: MU )
• Digital communications firm Cisco Systems (NASDAQ: CSCO )
• Networking products provider Juniper Networks (NYSE: JNPR )
• Semiconductor producer Marvell Technology Group (NASDAQ: MRVL )
• Cloud-computing Amazon Web Services' parent company Amazon (NASDAQ: AMZN )
• Bluechip multinational technology company IBM (NYSE: IBM )
• Major semiconducter chip manufacturer Intel (NASDAQ: INTC )

While most companies specializing in generative AI remain in the venture capital stage, there are plenty of AI stocks for those interested in the space. INN's article 5 Canadian Artificial Intelligence Stocks , ASX AI Stocks: 5 Biggest Companies , and 12 Generative AI Stocks to Watch as ChatGPT Soars includes some examples.

Investors who don’t like to put all their eggs in one basket can check out these 5 Artificial Intelligence ETFs . And if you’re looking for a more general overview of the market, INN has you covered with How to Invest in Artificial Intelligence . You can also take a look back at the market in 2023 with our AI Market 2023 Year-End Review , or read projections for AI this year in our AI Market Forecast: 3 Top Trends that will Affect AI in 2024 .

​FAQs for investing in OpenAI and ChatGPT

When will openai go public.

So, can you invest in OpenAI itself? The company is not currently a publicly traded stock; however, if Microsoft does take a large position in the company, investors will be able to gain indirect exposure to OpenAI by purchasing Microsoft shares.

For those seeking direct exposure, be on the lookout for news of an initial public offering (IPO). As of late-March 2024, there are no plans for an OpenAI IPO on the horizon.

How is OpenAI funded?​

OpenAI raised US$11.3 billion over six funding rounds from 2016 to January 2024.

The three top investors are technology investment firm Thrive Capital, venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz and revolutionary technology investment firm Founders Fund.

​What is the market value of ChatGPT/OpenAI?

OpenAI has a market valuation of US$80 billion as of February 2024. The company’s 2023 revenue had reached US$2 billion mark in December 2023 to join the ranks of Google and Meta (NASDAQ: META ).

Does ChatGPT use Nvidia chips?

ChatGPT’s distributed computing infrastructure depends upon powerful servers with multiple graphics processing units (GPUs). High-performance Nvidia GPU chips are preferred for this application as they also provide excellent Compute Unified Device Architecture support.

​Will ChatGPT cause another GPU shortage?

Most likely not. The type of GPUs used for machine learning models like ChatGPT are different from other types of GPUs, including those used to power gaming systems or crypto mining.

​Can ChatGPT make stock predictions?

A University of Florida study recently highlighted the potential for advanced language models such as ChatGPT to accurately predict movements in the stock market using sentiment analysis. During the course of the study, ChatGPT outperformed traditional sentiment analysis methods, and the finance professors conducting the research concluded that “incorporating advanced language models into the investment decision-making process can yield more accurate predictions and enhance the performance of quantitative trading strategies.”

When to expect ChatGPT 5?

OpenAI filed a trademark application for ChatGPT-5 in mid-July 2023, which hinted that the next iteration of the generative AI technology is currently under development. There were rumours the company planned to complete training for ChatGPT-5 by the end of 2023, which did not materialize. Its anyone's guess when we may see its launch, but most likely not before Q3 2024 .

While PC Guide notes that OpenAI did release GPT-4V and GPT-4 Turbo in Q4 2023, there is little sign that ChatGPT-5 is close to market. However, the publication did share that, "In a March 2024 interview on the Lex Fridman podcast, Sam Altman teased an “ amazing new model this year ” but wouldn’t commit to it being called GPT 5 (or anything else)".

This is an updated version of an article first published by the Investing News Network in 2023.

Don't forget to follow us @INN_Technology for real-time news updates!

Securities Disclosure: I, Melissa Pistilli, hold no direct investment interest in any company mentioned in this article.

Editorial Disclosure: The Investing News Network does not guarantee the accuracy or thoroughness of the information reported in the interviews it conducts. The opinions expressed in these interviews do not reflect the opinions of the Investing News Network and do not constitute investment advice. All readers are encouraged to perform their own due diligence.

The views and opinions expressed herein are the views and opinions of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of Nasdaq, Inc.

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