how to write good report

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How to Write a Report

Last Updated: March 15, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Emily Listmann, MA and by wikiHow staff writer, Amy Bobinger . Emily Listmann is a private tutor in San Carlos, California. She has worked as a Social Studies Teacher, Curriculum Coordinator, and an SAT Prep Teacher. She received her MA in Education from the Stanford Graduate School of Education in 2014. There are 22 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 8,714,730 times.

When you’re assigned to write a report, it can seem like an intimidating process. Fortunately, if you pay close attention to the report prompt, choose a subject you like, and give yourself plenty of time to research your topic, you might actually find that it’s not so bad. After you gather your research and organize it into an outline, all that’s left is to write out your paragraphs and proofread your paper before you hand it in!

Easy Steps to Write a Report

• Choose an interesting topic and narrow it down to a specific idea.
• Take notes as you research your topic. Come up with a thesis, or main theme of your report, based on your research.
• Outline the main ideas you’ll cover in your report. Then, write the first draft.

Sample Reports

Selecting Your Topic

• The guidelines will also typically tell you the requirements for the structure and format of your report.
• If you have any questions about the assignment, speak up as soon as possible. That way, you don’t start working on the report, only to find out you have to start over because you misunderstood the report prompt.

• For instance, if your report is supposed to be on a historical figure, you might choose someone you find really interesting, like the first woman to be governor of a state in the U.S., or the man who invented Silly Putty.
• If your report is about information technology , you could gather information about the use of computers to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data or information.
• Even if you don’t have the option to choose your topic, you can often find something in your research that you find interesting. If your assignment is to give a report on the historical events of the 1960s in America, for example, you could focus your report on the way popular music reflected the events that occurred during that time.

Tip: Always get approval from your teacher or boss on the topic you choose before you start working on the report!

• If you’re not sure what to write about at first, pick a larger topic, then narrow it down as you start researching.
• For instance, if you wanted to do your report on World Fairs, then you realize that there are way too many of them to talk about, you might choose one specific world fair, such as the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, to focus on.
• However, you wouldn’t necessarily want to narrow it down to something too specific, like “Food at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” since it could be hard to find sources on the subject without just listing a lot of recipes.

Researching the Report

• If you don’t have guidelines on how many sources to use, try to find 1-2 reputable sources for each page of the report.
• Sources can be divided into primary sources, like original written works, court records, and interviews, and secondary sources, like reference books and reviews.
• Databases, abstracts, and indexes are considered tertiary sources, and can be used to help you find primary and secondary sources for your report. [5] X Research source
• If you’re writing a business report , you may be given some supplementary materials, such as market research or sales reports, or you may need to compile this information yourself. [6] X Research source

• Librarians are an excellent resource when you're working on a report. They can help you find books, articles, and other credible sources.
• Often, a teacher will limit how many online sources you can use. If you find most of the information you need in the library, you can then use your online sources for details that you couldn’t find anywhere else.

Tip: Writing a report can take longer than you think! Don't put off your research until the last minute , or it will be obvious that you didn't put much effort into the assignment.

• Examples of authoritative online sources include government websites, articles written by known experts, and publications in peer-reviewed journals that have been published online.

• If you’re using a book as one of your sources, check the very back few pages. That’s often where an author will list the sources they used for their book.

• Remember to number each page of your notes, so you don’t get confused later about what information came from which source!
• Remember, you’ll need to cite any information that you use in your report; however, exactly how you do this will depend on the format that was assigned to you.

• For most reports, your thesis statement should not contain your own opinions. However, if you're writing a persuasive report, the thesis should contain an argument that you will have to prove in the body of the essay.
• An example of a straightforward report thesis (Thesis 1) would be: “The three main halls of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition were filled with modern creations of the day and were an excellent representation of the innovative spirit of the Progressive era.”
• A thesis for a persuasive report (Thesis 2) might say: “The Panama-Pacific International Exposition was intended as a celebration of the Progressive spirit, but actually harbored a deep racism and principle of white supremacy that most visitors chose to ignore or celebrate.”

• The purpose of an outline is to help you to visualize how your essay will look. You can create a straightforward list or make a concept map , depending on what makes the most sense to you.
• Try to organize the information from your notes so it flows together logically. For instance, it can be helpful to try to group together related items, like important events from a person’s childhood, education, and career, if you’re writing a biographical report.
• Example main ideas for Thesis 1: Exhibits at the Court of the Universe, Exhibits at the Court of the Four Seasons, Exhibits at the Court of Abundance.

Tip: It can help to create your outline on a computer in case you change your mind as you’re moving information around.

Writing the First Draft

• Try to follow any formatting instructions to the letter. If there aren't any, opt for something classic, like 12-point Times New Roman or Arial font, double-spaced lines, and 1 in (2.5 cm) margins all around.
• You'll usually need to include a bibliography at the end of the report that lists any sources you used. You may also need a title page , which should include the title of the report, your name, the date, and the person who requested the report.
• For some types of reports, you may also need to include a table of contents and an abstract or summary that briefly sums up what you’ve written. It’s typically easier to write these after you’ve finished your first draft. [14] X Research source

• Example Intro for Thesis 1: “The Panama-Pacific International Exposition (PPIE) of 1915 was intended to celebrate both the creation of the Panama Canal, and the technological advancements achieved at the turn of the century. The three main halls of the PPIE were filled with modern creations of the day and were an excellent representation of the innovative spirit of the Progressive era.”

• Typically, you should present the most important or compelling information first.
• Example topic sentence for Thesis 1: At the PPIE, the Court of the Universe was the heart of the exposition and represented the greatest achievements of man, as well as the meeting of the East and the West.

Tip: Assume that your reader knows little to nothing about the subject. Support your facts with plenty of details and include definitions if you use technical terms or jargon in the paper.

• Paraphrasing means restating the original author's ideas in your own words. On the other hand, a direct quote means using the exact words from the original source in quotation marks, with the author cited.
• For the topic sentence listed above about the Court of the Universe, the body paragraph should go on to list the different exhibits found at the exhibit, as well as proving how the Court represented the meeting of the East and West.
• Use your sources to support your topic, but don't plagiarize . Always restate the information in your own words. In most cases, you'll get in serious trouble if you just copy from your sources word-for-word. Also, be sure to cite each source as you use it, according to the formatting guidelines you were given. [18] X Research source

• Your commentary needs to be at least 1-2 sentences long. For a longer report, you may write more sentences for each piece of commentary.

• Avoid presenting any new information in the conclusion. You don’t want this to be a “Gotcha!” moment. Instead, it should be a strong summary of everything you’ve already told the reader.

Revising Your Report

• A good question to ask yourself is, “If I were someone reading this report for the first time, would I feel like I understood the topic after I finished reading?

Tip: If you have time before the deadline, set the report aside for a few days . Then, come back and read it again. This can help you catch errors you might otherwise have missed.

• Try reading the report to yourself out loud. Hearing the words can help you catch awkward language or run-on sentences you might not catch by reading it silently.

• This is a great trick to find spelling errors or grammatical mistakes that your eye would otherwise just scan over.

• Ask your helper questions like, “Do you understand what I am saying in my report?” “Is there anything you think I should take out or add?” And “Is there anything you would change?”

• If you have any questions about the assignment requirements, ask your instructor. It's important to know how they'll be grading your assignment.

Expert Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://libguides.reading.ac.uk/reports/writing-up
• ↑ https://emory.libanswers.com/faq/44525
• ↑ https://opentextbc.ca/writingforsuccess/chapter/chapter-7-sources-choosing-the-right-ones/
• ↑ https://libguides.merrimack.edu/research_help/Sources
• ↑ https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/1779625/VBS-Report-Writing-Guide-2017.pdf
• ↑ https://www.library.illinois.edu/hpnl/tutorials/primary-sources/
• ↑ https://libguides.scu.edu.au/harvard/secondary-sources
• ↑ https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/taking-notes-while-reading/
• ↑ https://wts.indiana.edu/writing-guides/how-to-write-a-thesis-statement.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/outline
• ↑ https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/engl250oer/chapter/10-4-table-of-contents/
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/thesis-statements/
• ↑ https://www.yourdictionary.com/articles/report-writing-format
• ↑ https://www.monash.edu/rlo/assignment-samples/assignment-types/writing-an-essay/writing-body-paragraphs
• ↑ https://www.grammarly.com/blog/5-most-effective-methods-for-avoiding-plagiarism/
• ↑ https://wts.indiana.edu/writing-guides/using-evidence.html
• ↑ https://www.student.unsw.edu.au/writing-report
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/revising-drafts/
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/grammarpunct/proofreading/
• ↑ https://opentextbc.ca/writingforsuccess/chapter/chapter-12-peer-review-and-final-revisions/
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/editing-and-proofreading/

About This Article

It can seem really hard to write a report, but it will be easier if you choose an original topic that you're passionate about. Once you've got your topic, do some research on it at the library and online, using reputable sources like encyclopedias, scholarly journals, and government websites. Use your research write a thesis statement that sums up the focus of your paper, then organize your notes into an outline that supports that thesis statement. Finally, expand that outline into paragraph form. Read on for tips from our Education co-author on how to format your report! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Write a Report (2023 Guide & Free Templates)

You have a report due in a few days, but you’re still procrastinating like a pro.

Sounds familiar?

If you’ve been staring at a blank page, wondering how to write a report the best way possible, you’re not alone. For many, writing a report, especially for the first time, can feel like rolling a giant boulder uphill.

The good news is that from a first draft to creating reports that people love to read is a skill you can develop and polish over time.

Whether you’re a student, a professional, or someone who wants to up their report-writing game, keep reading for a 2023 guide and step-by-step instructions on how to write a report. Plus, learn about the basic report format.

You’ll also get access to report templates that you can edit and customize immediately and learn about a tool to make reports online (no need to download software!). You can also jump right into customizing templates by creating a free account .

What is report writing?

Report writing is a way of communicating information, data, insight, or analysis. It’s an essential skill that will come in handy in various settings, from academic research or diving into historical events to business meetings.

But creating a report can be a bit intimidating at first.

In its simplest form, report writing starts with researching and gathering all the information, analyzing your findings, and presenting it in a way that’s easy for your audience to understand.

Sounds easy enough, right? 

Well, there’s a bit more to it than that. We’ll guide you through every step of the process to write an entire report from a rough draft and data in the next section. 

But first, let’s get to know the different types of reports.

Types of reports

Reports come in all shapes and sizes, and the type of report you write will depend on your specific goals and audience. Each type of report has its unique purpose, format, and style.

The most common types of reports are: 

• Academic report – These include school reports, book reports, thesis reports, or analytical reports between two opposing ideas.
• Business report – Business reports range from annual reports to SWOT analyses . The goal of business reports is to communicate ideas, information, or insights in a business setting.
• Research report –  Research reports are often more scientific or methodological in nature. They can take the form of case studies or research papers. 

Learn more : 20 Types of Reports and When to Use Them (Plus Templates)

How to write a report without feeling overwhelmed

Breaking down the report writing process into three stages can make it much more manageable for you, especially if it’s your first time to create one. 

These three stages are: 

• Pre-writing stage
• Writing stage
• Post-writing stage

Let’s take a look at the steps for each stage and how to write a good report in 2023 that you can be proud of.

Stage 1: Pre-writing 

The pre-writing stage is all about preparation. Take some time to gather your thoughts and organize your main idea. Write a summary first.

Here are important steps to help you deal with the overwhelm of creating an insightful report. 

Understand the purpose of your report

Knowing your purpose will help you focus and stay on track throughout the process. Dig into the why of your report through these questions:

• Who is your intended reader? Are you familiar with your audience’s language and how they think?
• What are you trying to achieve with your report? Are you trying to inform, persuade, or recommend a course of action to the reader? 

Research your topic

It’s time to gather as much information as you can about your topic. This might involve reading books, articles, and other reports. You might also need to conduct interviews with subject matter experts.

Pro tip on how to write a report : Pick reputable sources like research papers, recently-published books, and case studies by trustworthy authors. 

Make a report outline

An outline is a roadmap for your report. It covers your title, introduction, thesis statement, main points, and conclusion. Organizing your thoughts this way will help you keep focus and ensure you cover all the necessary information.

While you can create a report without creating an outline, you could write a better report with an outline. An outline helps you organize your facts and important points on paper. 

Stage 2: Writing

Once you have completed the pre-writing stage, it’s time to write your report. 

Follow the proper report writing format

You will feel a lot of resistance at this point because this is where most of the tedious work of report writing happens. However, the process can be a breeze if you follow a proper structure and report writing format.

The structure of your report can vary depending on the type of report you’re creating, but the report writing format below can serve as a guide for anyone.

• Title page. This is the first page of your report and should include the report’s title, the author’s name, the date of presentation or submission, and any other relevant information, such as your name or the organization’s name.
• Table of Contents (TOC ). This section contains subsections of your report and their corresponding page numbering.  A well-written TOC will help readers navigate your report easily and find the information they need.
• Brief summary . This part provides an overview of the report’s particular purpose, subject, methodology, key findings, and recommendations. This section is often called the executive summary in corporate reports.
• Introduction . The introduction should provide background information about the topic and explain why the report was written. It should also state the aims and objectives of your report and give an overview of the methodology used to gather and analyze the data. Make sure you include a powerful topic sentence.
• Main body. The main body of the report should be divided into subsections, each dealing with a specific aspect of the topic. These sections should be clearly labeled and organized in a logical order. In most reports, this is also the part where you explain and present your findings, analysis, and recommendations.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points of your report and provide a final summary, thought, or suggestions. Review your thesis statement. The conclusion also includes any limitations of the study and areas for further research or future action.
• References . This section should include a list of all the sources cited in the report, like books, journal articles, websites, and any other sources used to gather information on your subject.
• Appendices . In the appendices section, you should include any additional information relevant to the report but not in the article’s main body. This might consist of raw data, event details, graphs, charts, or tables.

With all these key report elements, your readers can look forward to an informative, well-organized, and easy-to-read report.

Pro tips: Remember to use clear and concise language in your essay. It is also required to follow a specific type of formatting set by your organization or instructor.

Plus, use the active voice when you can because it helps improve clarity. To write a report essay in a passive voice makes it sound less concise.

Reports should usually be written in the third person.

Edit and proofread the article

Once you have completed your first essay draft, take some time to edit and proofread your work. Look for spelling mistakes and grammar errors, as well as any areas where the flow of your article could be improved. Review your topic sentence.

If hiring a professional editor isn’t possible, have a colleague or someone else read your rough draft and provide feedback. You can also use tools like Grammarly and the Hemingway App . 

Stage 3: Post-writing

You’re almost there! This stage is about finalizing your report and ensuring it is ready to be shared. 

Format your report

Ensure your report is formatted correctly, with clear and easy-to-read fonts, headings, and subheadings.

Incorporate visuals

Adding visuals to your report article is another great way to help your audience understand complex information more easily.

From charts to illustrations, the right visual can help highlight and explain key points, events, trends, and patterns in your data, making it easier for the reader to interpret the information.

Want to check out more templates? Get access to the template gallery today .

However, it’s important to use visuals sparingly and ensure they are relevant and effectively support the texts. You will learn more about effectively incorporating visuals into your report as you scroll down below to the next sections. 

Share your report

Once your report is complete, share it with your audience. This might involve submitting it to your boss, presenting it to a group, or sharing it online.

A final note for this section: Remember to take your time, stay organized, and most importantly, have fun! Writing a report can be a rewarding experience, especially if you get positive feedback when you present.

How to add visuals to your report

Adding visuals to your report is more than just putting a graph or chart for every piece of information.

There are no hard and fast rules but use the pointers below as guidelines:

• Each visual in your report should have a purpose. Don’t just add a pie chart or bar graph for the sake of adding one. Your visual of choice should offer clarity to readers that’s impossible to achieve with words alone. Piktochart’s report maker lets you search for free stock images and illustrations to add to any page with drag and drop.
• Add captions, legends, or arrows to your visuals when possible. For more technical reports, graphics are either Tables or Figures. Number them in order of appearance (Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, etc.) and give each a descriptive title.
• Place the visual close to the relevant text on the page.
• Document the source of the visual, citing it in both the caption and references section if necessary.
• Make the graphic stand out with colors, borders, boxes, spacing, and frames.

Learn more : How to Improve Your Data Visualization Design in 6 Steps 

Write reports like a pro with Piktochart’s easy-to-edit report templates

Creating reports from scratch can be time-consuming. The great news is you don’t have to make reports from scratch like how it used to be in the 90s and early 2000s. Organizations of all shapes and sizes now understand that you can also create the perfect report with the help of templates.

For example, Piktochart offers a variety of fully customizable templates, allowing you to easily add your branding, colors, and text within the online editor. You can visualize your thesis statement and first draft in less than an hour. It’s also possible to start writing directly in the tool, adding graphics page by page.

These templates range from reports for school presentations to sales reports. By editing them, you can create professional-looking reports without the hassle of formatting and design.

Here are some examples of Piktochart’s professionally-designed templates. If you can’t pick one that matches your report writing format and needs, create a free Piktochart account to get access to more templates. 

Survey report template 

This survey report template includes clear visualizations, making your report findings easier to understand. From customer surveys to employee satisfaction reports, this template is quite versatile. 

Research report template 

This research report template is perfect for anyone looking to create a thorough and professional research report. The template includes all the necessary sections to help you easily organize your research and present your findings in a concise document.

Corporate report template 

Looking for a corporate report template example with an editable table of contents and foreword? This template is the perfect fit!

Whether you’re presenting to investors or sharing information with your team, this corporate report template will help you create a polished and informative executive summary for any corporate organization.

Case study report template

Whether you’re conducting a business case study or an academic case study, this case study report template can help you earn your readers’ trust. This template is specifically designed with fashion as its main theme, but you can edit the photos and details to make it more on-brand with your niche.

Marketing report template

Use this template to create comprehensive marketing reports. The template includes editable sections for social media, data from search engines, email marketing, and paid ads. 

Financial report template 

With this customizable finance report template, you don’t need to make a financial report from scratch. Once you’ve written your content, save your report in PDF or PNG formats.

Annual report template 

This annual report template is the right template for creating a professional and informative executive summary of your organization’s performance over the past year. This template was designed for HR annual reports, but you can also repurpose it for other types of yearly reports. 

See more report templates by creating a free Piktochart account . 

Quick checklist for better report writing

Before you submit or present your report, use the quick checklist below to help ensure that your report is well-structured, accurate, clear, and properly cited. Most of all, you must ensure that your report meets your audience’s expectations and has all the information and details they need. 

Purpose and audience

• Does the report address its purpose and meet the needs of the intended audience?

Structure and organization

• Is the material appropriately arranged in sections?
• Have irrelevant details been removed?

Accuracy and analysis

• Has all the material been checked for accuracy?
• Are graphs and tables clearly labeled? Check the page numbers too.
• Is the data in graphs or tables analyzed and explained in words?
• Does the discussion or conclusion show how the results relate to the objectives mentioned in the introduction?
• Have the results been compared with existing research from the literature survey?

Writing style and clarity

• Is the report written in a tone that’s indicated in the brand style guide (for corporate reports)? Does it avoid colloquialisms or contractions? 
• Does it follow the organization’s specific guidelines for writing style? 
• Is it jargon-free and clearly written? Have you translated technical terms into simpler words?
• Use the active voice when you can because it helps improve clarity. A written report in a passive voice may make it sound less concise. 

Acknowledgment and citation

• Have all ideas and event data taken from or inspired by someone else’s work been acknowledged with a reference?
• Have all illustrations and figures taken from someone else’s work been cited correctly?

Proofreading

• Has the report been carefully proofread for typos, spelling errors, and grammatical mistakes?

Make engaging and effective reports quickly with Piktochart

Writing a report is a must-have skill for anyone looking to communicate more effectively in their personal and professional lives. 

With the steps we’ve provided in this guide, anyone can learn how to write a report that is informative, engaging, and comprehensive.

Plus, the free templates we highlighted are valuable for individuals looking to create reports quickly and efficiently. They can also be used to transform a longer report filled with texts into something more engaging and easy to digest.

Sign up for a free Piktochart account today, and look forward to writing reports with its library of modern, customizable report templates. 

Piktochart offers professionally designed templates for all your visual communication needs. It is your one-stop shop for presentations , posters , logos , email signatures , infographics , and more. Customize all templates according to your brand assets in seconds. Get started for free today.

Kyjean Tomboc is an experienced content marketer for healthcare, design, and SaaS brands. She also manages content (like a digital librarian of sorts). She lives for mountain trips, lap swimming, books, and cats.

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How to write a report (with tips and examples)

Delve into our practical guide designed to improve your report writing skills. Explore example reports and discover useful tips for writing clear and effective reports.

1. Understand Your Purpose: Always start with a clear understanding of your report's objective. This clarity guides your research, the writing process, and the way you present your findings.

2. Emphasize Clarity and Precision: Your report should be written in clear, simple language. Prioritize precision and avoid unnecessary jargon. Use visuals to represent complex data effectively.

3. Refine Through Revision: Never underestimate the power of editing and proofreading. These steps are critical in enhancing the quality of your report. Additionally, seeking feedback from colleagues or mentors can provide valuable insights.

What is a Report?

Imagine having to comprehend the intricate details of a six-month-long project in a single meeting, or having to make an informed decision based on a sea of raw data. Overwhelming, isn't it? This is where the power of a report comes into play.

A report is a strategic tool that communicates the results of an investigation, a project, or any complex analysis in a clear and concise way. It is the torchlight that cuts through the dense forest of data and information, guiding us toward understanding and action.

At its heart, a report is about simplicity and clarity. It takes the core findings from a more complex investigation and distills them into a simpler, easier-to-follow narrative.

Take, for example, a Financial Analysis Report in a business setting. Such a report takes a mountain of financial data – from revenue to expenses, assets to liabilities – and transforms it into a clear analysis that highlights the company's financial health, trends, and areas that need attention. By distilling complex financial data into a digestible format, the report empowers decision-makers to understand the company's financial state and make informed strategic decisions.

Types of Report

Reports come in all shapes and sizes, each designed to communicate specific types of information to particular audiences. Here are five common types of reports used in a professional setting:

Project Status Report

As its name suggests, a Project Status Report provides an update on a specific project's progress. It typically includes information about completed tasks, ongoing work, any challenges encountered, and next steps. This report is crucial in keeping stakeholders informed and facilitating timely decision-making. For example, a project manager in an IT company might prepare a weekly Project Status Report to update the leadership team about the progress of a new software development project.

Financial Report

A Financial Report is an essential document in the business world. It provides a comprehensive overview of a company's financial health, including details about revenue, expenses, profits, losses, assets, and liabilities. These reports, often prepared quarterly or annually, help stakeholders, investors, and decision-makers understand the company's financial performance and make better-informed strategic decisions.

Research Report

Research Reports are commonly used in both academia and various industries. These reports present the findings from a research study, detailing the research methods, data collected, analysis, and conclusions drawn. For instance, a market research report might reveal consumer behavior trends, helping a company shape its marketing strategy.

Audit Report

An Audit Report is a formal document outlining an auditor's unbiased examination of a company's financial statements. It gives stakeholders confidence in the company's financial integrity and compliance with regulatory standards.

Progress Report

A Progress Report is often used to monitor the advancement of ongoing work or projects. These reports can be on an individual, team, or organizational level. For example, a sales team might produce a monthly progress report showing sales volumes, trends, and areas for improvement.

Each type of report serves its unique purpose and shares a common goal: to transform complex information into an accessible format that drives understanding, decision-making, and progress.

How to Format a Report

Every report requires a structured format for clear communication. The actual format of a report might vary depending on its purpose and formality, but here are the key components of an effective report:

1. Title Page: The Title Page should include the report's title, your name, the date, and often the name of your organization or institution.

2. Executive Summary: A succinct overview of the report's key points, findings, and implications. This section gives the reader a clear idea of what to expect from the report. Sometimes it's easier to compose this section last, once the rest of the report has been completed.

3. Table of Contents: A systematic list of the report's sections and subsections, acting as a navigational tool for your reader.

4. Introduction: The foundational part of the report. It introduces the topic, outlines the report's purpose, and defines its scope, preparing the reader for what's to come.

5. Methodology: An explanation of the methods and tools used for gathering and analyzing data. This section establishes the credibility of your findings and helps the reader comprehend your investigative process. This is perhaps more common in an academic setting: a project status report, for example, is less likely to need a section dedicated to methodology.

6. Findings/Results: The section where you detail your data and the results of your analysis. This is the core of your report, presenting the results of your investigation or research. As well as written data, you should include graphs, images and tables to present your findings, where appropriate.

7. Conclusion: The summary and interpretation of your findings. It reaffirms the insights your report offers and solidifies the report's overall message.

8. Recommendations: Based on the findings, this section proposes future actions or improvements, steering the course for next steps.

The final two sections are perhaps more common in an academic report, but both are worth mentioning here too:

9. Appendices: A place for any supplementary information or data that supports your report but isn't part of the main flow. It serves as a resource for readers interested in delving deeper into the topic.

10. References/Bibliography: A list of all the sources you've cited in your report. This section gives due credit to the referenced works and showcases the depth of your research.

How to Write a Report

Writing a compelling report is a skill crucial to various professional roles, no matter what position or industry you’re in. While the subject of each report might differ, there are key steps to creating an impactful document:

1. Understand the Purpose

Before you start writing, make sure you fully understand the purpose of your report. Why is it needed? What questions should it answer? Who will be reading it? Understanding these factors will guide your research, writing style, and the overall structure of your report.

2. Conduct Thorough Research

A strong report is based on accurate and comprehensive data. In a business setting, this research is usually based on your own data, whereas in an academic setting you'll often rely on external data sources. Take the time to research your topic thoroughly, using reliable and relevant sources. Keep track of all the sources you consult—you’ll need them for your bibliography.

3. Plan Your Report

Start with an outline. This step ensures your report has a logical flow and covers all necessary points. Just like a blueprint, an outline helps you structure your thoughts, organize your data, and divide your content into meaningful sections.

4. Write Clearly and Concisely

Your goal is to communicate, not to confuse. Keep your language simple and your sentences short. Make your points clearly, and support them with facts. Avoid jargon unless it's necessary and you're certain your audience understands it.

5. Use Visuals When Helpful

Charts, graphs, tables, and other visual aids can enhance your report by illustrating complex data in a digestible way. Ensure all visuals are relevant, appropriately labelled, and referenced in the text.

6. Draft and Revise

Your first draft won't be perfect, and that's okay. The key is to start writing. Once you have your thoughts on paper, you can refine and reorganize the content. Revising is a critical part of the writing process —never underestimate its power.

7. Proofread

Review your report for grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors. Also, ensure all data and facts are accurate, and all sources are correctly cited (where applicable). An error-free report enhances your credibility and reflects your attention to detail.

8. Get Feedback

If possible, have a colleague or mentor review your report before finalizing it. They can provide fresh perspectives, point out any gaps, and suggest improvements.

9. Distribute the Report

Once your report is finalized, it's time to share your work. Distribute it to the appropriate audience, which may include your team, supervisor, or client. If the report will be discussed in a meeting or presentation , it might be helpful to distribute it in advance to give everyone a chance to review it.

Remember, writing a strong report is a blend of strategic thinking, thorough research, clear communication, and attention to detail.

Tips for Writing Successful Reports

While the structure and purpose of reports may vary, certain principles apply universally to create successful documents. Here are five tips to elevate your report writing:

1. Maintain Objectivity

Your report should present data and facts as objectively as possible. Avoid letting personal biases influence the way you present information. Even when you're interpreting results or making recommendations, ensure that your conclusions are driven by the evidence at hand.

2. Stay Focused

Each report should have a single, clear purpose. Avoid going off on tangents or including irrelevant information. While it's important to provide context and background, don't lose sight of your report's main objective.

3. Think About Your Audience

Tailor your language, tone, and level of detail to the needs and understanding of your audience. A report written for experts in your field may use different language than one written for non-specialists. Always explain technical terms or industry jargon that your readers may not be familiar with.

4. Validate Your Points

Support every assertion you make with evidence or data. This adds credibility to your report and allows readers to understand the basis of your conclusions. Wherever possible, use graphics or visuals to illustrate your points—it’s a powerful way to represent data and ideas.

5. Format consistently

Consistency lends your report a professional look and helps readability. Stick to a consistent format in terms of font, spacing, heading styles, and captioning. Ensure your visuals are in sync with the rest of the document in terms of style and color scheme.

Reports are powerful communication tools, vital in various professional settings. The ability to write an effective report is a skill that can significantly enhance your impact in the workplace. From understanding what a report is, knowing the different types of reports, through to formatting and writing your report, the goal of this guide was to provide a comprehensive overview to help you excel in this critical skill.

By keeping the report’s purpose in mind, conducting thorough research, using a clear and concise writing style, and meticulously revising and proofreading your document, you can ensure your report not only communicates its intended information but does so in an engaging, digestible manner. Employing these strategies, combined with the tips offered, will help you create high-quality, impactful reports.

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How to Write a Perfect Report: A Step-by-Step Guide

Writing a perfect report can seem daunting, whether you’re a student, a professional, or just someone trying to organize information effectively. But fear not! With a structured approach and some insider tips, you can master the art of report writing. In this article, we’ll guide you through the process of crafting a report that not only conveys your message clearly but also engages your reader from start to finish.

Understanding the Basics of Report Writing

What makes a good report.

Before diving into the specifics, let’s address a fundamental question: What makes a good report? A well-written report is clear, concise, and informative. It presents facts and analysis in an organized manner, making it easy for the reader to understand the main points. Importantly, a good report also engages the reader – it’s not just a collection of data but a structured narrative that guides the reader through the information. This level of quality is often found in professional Edubirdie report writing service , which employs skilled writers adept at crafting reports that meet these high standards. With their expertise, a report transforms from a mere document into an insightful, well-structured narrative, showcasing the value of professional assistance in report writing.

The Importance of Planning

The first step in writing an effective report is planning. You need to understand your audience and purpose. Who are you writing for, and what do they need to know? Tailoring your report to your audience’s needs is crucial for its effectiveness.

Image from Freepik

Step-by-Step Guide to Writing a Report

Step 1: define your purpose and audience.

Ask yourself, why are you writing this report? What do you hope to achieve? Understanding your objective will help you stay focused and relevant. Similarly, consider your audience. Are they experts in the field, or are they laypersons? This will determine the level of detail and complexity in your report.

Step 2: Conduct Thorough Research

Gather all the information and data relevant to your topic. Ensure your sources are credible and up-to-date. Remember, the quality of your report is directly linked to the quality of your research.

Step 3: Organize Your Information

Now that you have your data, how should you present it? Organizing your information in a logical flow is key. Start with an outline, grouping related information. This will form the backbone of your report.

Step 4: Write the Introduction

The introduction sets the stage. It should provide background information, outline the purpose of the report, and give a brief overview of what the reader can expect.

Step 5: Develop the Body

This is where you delve into the details. Present your findings, analysis, and any discussions here. Use headings and subheadings to break up the text and make it easy to navigate.

Step 6: Conclude and Recommend

End with a strong conclusion that summarizes the main points. If applicable, provide recommendations based on your findings.

Enhancing Your Report with Effective Writing Techniques

Using engaging language.

Engage your readers by using a conversational tone. Don’t shy away from using personal pronouns or injecting a bit of personality into your writing. Remember, a report doesn’t have to be dry and impersonal!

Incorporating Visual Elements

Visuals like charts, graphs, and images can enhance the understanding of complex data. They also break up long sections of text, making your report more reader-friendly.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Report Writing

Overloading with information.

While it’s important to be thorough, avoid overwhelming your reader with too much information. Be selective and focus on what’s most relevant.

Neglecting the Audience’s Needs

Always keep your audience in mind. Technical jargon, complex language, or a lack of clarity can alienate readers.

Wrapping Up: The Final Touches

Proofreading and editing.

Never underestimate the power of proofreading. Check for grammatical errors, clarity, and coherence. A well-edited report reflects professionalism and attention to detail.

The Importance of Feedback

If possible, have someone else review your report. Fresh eyes can catch mistakes you might have missed and provide valuable feedback.

Writing a perfect report is an art that blends organization, clarity, and engagement. By understanding your audience, conducting thorough research, organizing your information logically, and using engaging language, you can craft a report that not only delivers information but also keeps the reader’s interest. Remember, a well-written report is more than just facts and figures; it’s a story that guides your reader through a journey of understanding. With these tips in hand, you’re well on your way to mastering the art of report writing. Happy writing!

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How to Write a Report for Maximum Clarity and Impact

Sudarshan Somanathan

Head of Content

January 26, 2024

If you’re a professional in any industry, you know that sharing ideas and findings through well-crafted reports is a skill that will set you apart from your peers.

But writing a compelling report may seem daunting at first. It requires a well-thought-out  approach. 

What elements or sources should you incorporate to ensure your report is comprehensive and engaging? And how do you organize each section for maximum impact?

In this guide, we’ll explore the ins and outs of report writing, breaking it down step by step. We’ll also introduce you to some game-changing features in ClickUp, a platform that will make your report-writing journey smoother and more collaborative. Let’s dive in!

Understanding Report Writing

Different types of reports and report writing, key components of report writing, how to write a report, utilizing templates for report writing, wrapping up.

Before we explore the intricacies of how to write a report, let’s establish a solid understanding of what report writing entails. Report writing encompasses the art and science of transforming raw information into a cohesive and structured document.

A well-crafted report is more than a collection of facts; it’s a narrative that provides clarity, insight, and direction. In business, accurate and insightful reports help with informed decision-making. 

Adept report writing is a strategic skill that distills complex data into understandable insights. Whether documenting project progress, detailing financial metrics, or analyzing market trends, reports provide a medium. 

Reports take various forms in academic and professional settings. In academia and business, research reports provide insights into scientific studies. Policy-makers rely on book reports, and field study reports for ground-level information.

A project report or summary is a comprehensive document that outlines a project’s objectives, progress, challenges, and outcomes. Writing effective project reports demands attention to clear objectives, systematic data collection, and a concise presentation of findings.

Progress, technical, functional, marketing, academic, sales reports, and case studies serve diverse purposes. Each type is purposefully crafted to fulfill specific objectives, catering to the distinct needs within organizations.

Despite their differences in subject, these reports adhere to common attributes, principles, and formats in report writing.

Here, we’ll explore five common types of reports and explain their distinct characteristics. We’ll also show you how to write a report for successful outcomes in your respective fields.

1. Research reports

Research reports meticulously explore a specific topic, utilizing surveys, experiments, or literature reviews. Geared toward contributing to existing knowledge, these reports offer a detailed and authoritative understanding of the subject.

Key features include an extensive literature review, a well-defined methodology, a systematic presentation of findings, and conclusive insights derived from rigorous research. 

When writing a research report, start with a clear and focused research question. Conduct thorough literature reviews to identify existing gaps.

Define a precise methodology, outlining your approach step by step. Present your findings in a structured manner, ensuring clarity in your delivery. Employ conclusive insights to draw actionable conclusions.

2. Business reports

Business reports intricately analyze business-related information, which includes financial performance, project updates, and strategic plans.

They inform stakeholders, investors, or internal teams about business operations and performance metrics.

A comprehensive report includes financial statements and concise summaries of ongoing projects. It also provides strategic recommendations tailored to the specific needs and interests of the target audience.  

Start with a clear executive summary, move on to financial analysis, offer insights into profitability and performance indicators.

Prioritize clarity and brevity to communicate complex information effectively. Use data visualization tools when necessary to enhance understanding. 

3. Technical reports

Technical reports convey complex technical information, procedures, or analyses. Predominantly utilized in science and engineering, these reports aim to communicate intricate technical details.

Specialized language, detailed procedures, and precise data presentation are hallmarks of technical reports, requiring a certain level of expertise for comprehension. These reports often serve as valuable technical references, aiding decision-making, troubleshooting, and further research.

As a professional, ensure your technical reports cater to the specific needs of your audience.

Leverage technical writing software and tools to enhance the precision and effectiveness of your communication. They help maintain a delicate balance between technical depth and clarity for seamless comprehension.

Detail procedures meticulously, leaving no room for ambiguity and aiding professionals in replicating processes or methodologies. Precisely present data, graphs, or tables to reinforce findings.

4. Incident reports

Incident reports involve the meticulous documentation of unexpected events or issues. They’re typically written down, outlining real events, the sequence of events, and the corresponding responses.

These are designed to analyze incidents thoroughly, learn from them, and establish preventive measures for future occurrences.

Detailed descriptions of the incident and its immediate and potential impact form the core of incident reports. Recommendations for improvement ensure a comprehensive understanding and proactive approach.

When drafting incident reports, ensure a detailed chronology of events and responses.

Incident report templates guide professionals in crafting detailed narratives, ensuring comprehensive documentation.

Consider the templates for documentation and to enhance preparedness, minimize risks, and cultivate a safer and more resilient environment in your field.

5. Progress reports

Progress reports track the ongoing development of a project or initiative, documenting achievements, challenges, and future plans.

They’re primarily geared toward providing decision-makers with valuable insights and relevant data, enabling informed decision-making.

These reports include milestone tracking, performance indicators, project reports, and a narrative that details the project’s progress and outlines anticipated future milestones. 

To create an effective progress report, focus on quantifiable achievements and challenges. Tailor the report to decision-makers, providing them with a concise and forward-looking overview. 

Now, let’s delve deeper into the essential components of a well-structured report.

To write impactful reports, you need to grasp the basics. From the initial impression set by the title page to the nuanced details in appendices and executive briefs, each element plays a vital role in improving the report’s effectiveness and readability.

Here are the key components contributing to a comprehensive report’s structure and depth.

1. Title page

Serves as the face of the report, providing crucial information at a glance. It includes title, author’s name, date, and relevant institutional information. 

2. Abstract or executive summary 

Summarizes the report’s main points. Offers a quick overview for readers with time constraints, acting as a stand-alone summary highlighting key findings and recommendations.

3. Table of contents

Outlines the structure and organization of the report, aiding readers in navigation. Accuracy in page references is vital, ensuring a reliable roadmap for easy access to specific content areas.

4. Introduction

Acts as the opening chapter, setting the stage for the report. States the report’s purpose and scope, offering a concise yet comprehensive overview of what follows. Guides readers toward a clear understanding of the report’s objectives and what they can expect within its content. 

5. Methodology or approach 

Details of how the research or analysis was conducted. Essential for transparency, allowing others to replicate the study and verify its validity.

6. Findings or results 

Presents the main outcomes or discoveries derived from the research. Backed by data, evidence, or examples, ensuring the credibility and reliability of the presented findings.

7. Discussion or analysis 

Interprets the report findings, providing context and deeper understanding. Offers insights and potential implications, elevating the report beyond a mere presentation of facts. 

8. Recommendations 

Suggest actions based on the report’s findings. Provides decision-makers clear directions on how to respond to the presented information.

9. Conclusion 

Summarize the report’s key points. Reinforces the main theme, leaving a lasting impression on the reader.

10. References or bibliography 

Cites sources used for reference in the report, ensuring its credibility and allowing for further exploration. Adheres to a standardized citation format for most reports, enhancing the report’s professionalism and academic integrity.

Let’s explore a few additional components that enhance a report’s completeness. Incorporating these into your report ensures it is a valuable and impactful document in your professional endeavors.

• Appendix: Houses supplementary materials such as charts, graphs, or detailed data to enhance comprehensiveness and provide additional information 
• Acknowledgments: Conveys gratitude to those who contributed and ensures proper recognition to foster a collaborative and appreciative tone within the report
• Glossary of terminology: Defines technical terms or jargon for better reader comprehension, especially in reports with specialized language
• Visual elements: Incorporates visuals like charts, graphs, or images. Aids in presenting complex data or concepts, enhancing reader engagement and understanding
• Executive brief: Offers a condensed executive summary version, providing a quick snapshot of the report’s key elements for efficient decision-making
• Quality assurance or peer review: Involves a thorough review process to catch errors or inconsistencies, ensuring the information presented is accurate and trustworthy
• Action plan: Propose a step-by-step plan based on recommendations to help execute the next steps effectively, translating recommendations into tangible results
• Monitoring and evaluation: Establish a system for ongoing assessment after the report’s implementation. Ensures continuous improvement, allowing for adjustments based on real-world outcomes

You need the right tools and a systematic approach to write effective reports. Let’s explore the intricacies of report creation.

Here are the practical steps to craft a good report that grabs attention and delivers impact:

1. Define your purpose and audience

Before you start writing a report, clearly define why you’re creating the report and who will be reading it. 

Ask yourself: What is the main objective of the report or article? Is it to inform, persuade, or analyze? Understanding your audience is paramount.

Tailor your language, tone, and content to cater to your readers’ specific needs, expectations, and level of expertise. 

2. Research thoroughly

Gather all necessary information through extensive research and credible sources, ensuring a well-rounded understanding of your subject matter. To expedite this process, leverage ClickUp AI features . Utilize its advanced capabilities to quickly summarize lengthy documents, extracting key insights efficiently.

Explore a diverse array of over a hundred meticulously crafted and research-backed AI tools, offering tailored solutions for every role and use case.

Incorporating AI streamlines your research and improves the precision of data extraction. 

3. Plan your structure

Before you start writing, plan the structure of your report. Develop a comprehensive roadmap outlining each section, ensuring your narrative’s logical flow and coherence.  

A well-structured outline acts as a guide, facilitating seamless transitions between ideas and topics. To simplify this task, use ClickUp AI’s intuitive features to create organized outlines.

This optimization refines your report’s structure, enhancing readability, overall quality, and impact.

4. Utilize ClickUp’s features for drafting

Leverage ClickUp Docs for a seamless writing experience beyond traditional document creation. Take advantage of the platform’s collaborative features like Assigned Comments for efficient teamwork.

Here’s how to utilize ClickUp Docs to expedite your workflow and enrich your work experience. 

• Integration with workflows: Link Docs and tasks together for centralized access. Enhance workflows by adding widgets to update project statuses, assign tasks, and more—all within the document editor
• Tagging and task assignment: Simultaneously edit documents with your team in real time. Tag team members with comments, assign action items, and convert text into trackable tasks for seamless idea management
• Efficient document management: Quickly access document templates for immediate drafting. Save frequently used documents as templates for convenient access in the future
• Advanced document settings: Customize font type, size, height, page width, and more according to your preferences. Keep track of essential metrics, including character count, word count, and reading time for each page in your Doc
• Enhanced document customization: Customize your document’s appearance with an overview and headers. Ensure a structured and visually appealing layout for a more engaging reader experience

5. Leverage AI writing tools and start organizing with checklists

Unleash your creativity and conquer writer’s block with various advanced AI writing tools like ClickUp AI.  It provides a dynamic solution for brainstorming, generating content, and breaking creative barriers.  

Utilize ClickUp’s Checklists to ensure a systematic approach to your tasks, covering all necessary points seamlessly. Stay on top of your progress and deadlines, enhancing your productivity and reducing the risk of overlooking crucial details.

Keep all your work organized by categorizing Docs within ClickUp, facilitating easy access and searchability. Ensure the security of your Docs with privacy and edit controls, allowing you to manage who can access and edit your documents.

6. Revise and edit

After completing your first draft, reviewing your report for clarity, coherence, and accuracy is crucial. Ensure your ideas flow seamlessly, maintaining a logical structure throughout the document. Utilize writing assistant software for valuable insights into your writing style. Whether refining grammar, improving sentence structure, or fine-tuning vocabulary, the best writing assistant software is a virtual guide. These advanced tools also suggest improvements, enhancing your report’s overall readability.

To enhance your editing process, leverage ClickUp’s advanced commenting features. Solicit feedback from colleagues directly within the document to promote constructive input.

Ensure there are no grammatical mistakes or typos. ClickUp’s collaborative features make it easy for multiple eyes to review. 

7. Format professionally

Attention to formatting is pivotal for a polished and professional-looking report. Ensure consistency in font styles, headings, spacing, and alignment throughout the body of the report.

ClickUp’s versatile templates are an excellent starting point, offering pre-designed layouts that can significantly enhance your report’s visual appeal.

From case study templates and daily report templates to annual report templates , ClickUp offers a variety of templates for quick content creation.

Leveraging these templates streamlines the formatting process, providing a structured framework. 

8. Finalize and distribute with confidence

Once you’ve confirmed that all the data in your report aligns with your standards, proceed to the finalization step. Double-check all components, including content, formatting, and accuracy.

Confirm that your report aligns with the initial purpose and effectively communicates your findings. Once satisfied, proceed to distribute your report to the intended audience.

Consider the most appropriate channels for dissemination, ensuring accessibility and relevance to the recipients. Whether through email, a shared platform, or a presentation, choose a method that aligns with your audience’s preferences.

Templates are a game-changer when it comes to report writing. They provide a structured starting point, saving you time and ensuring consistency.

With predefined structures, formats, and prompts, content writing templates help streamline your writing workflow. Whether a seasoned writer or tackling a new project, incorporating free content writing templates into your toolkit can significantly boost productivity. 

Here are some ClickUp templates to leverage:

1. Report cover template

The Report Cover Template in ClickUp efficiently creates professional and visually appealing covers for various reports. It streamlines the design process and customization options, allowing users to:

• Create modern, stylish covers for reports
• Customize fonts and colors, and include logos or images
• Maintain consistency in branding across marketing reports

Steps to use the Report Cover Template involve setting the tone, selecting suitable designs, adding necessary details, finalizing, and printing. Collaboration, brainstorming, and progress tracking are facilitated within ClickUp’s workspace.

2. Report requirements template

The Report Requirements Template by ClickUp offers an efficient and organized approach to creating comprehensive reports. It streamlines the process by:

• Providing a consistent format for data collection, ensuring accuracy, completeness, and improved efficiency
• Offering structured elements like custom statuses, fields, views, and project management tools
• Guiding users through steps like defining the report’s purpose, establishing timelines, gathering resources, outlining content, and reviewing the final report

This template helps you:

• Clearly define report objectives and structure content
• Assign tasks, set timelines, and monitor progress
• Collect, organize, and analyze data for cohesive reports
• Facilitate collaboration among team members and ensure efficient communication throughout the report creation process

The Report Requirements Template facilitates project requirement documentation for business analysts. Integrating this template into your ClickUp Workspace helps maintain cohesion and clarity within teams, streamlining the process from report conceptualization to delivery.

3. Project reporting template

Project reporting is crucial for a project manager to gauge a project’s health and address critical areas needing attention. The Project Reporting Template comprehensively overviews high-level Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and overall project performance.

It assists in monitoring essential project elements such as tasks, expenses, and pending action items. Click Up’s Project Reporting Template is a centralized tool for project managers, providing insights into the project’s progress and potential bottlenecks.

With a clear snapshot of crucial project metrics, managers make informed decisions and allocate resources effectively to ensure project success. Streamline your project reporting with this template, covering key project elements.

By incorporating these templates into your report-writing process, you save time. You benefit from a proven framework designed to enhance the clarity and organization of your report.

In today’s dynamic professional environment, proficient communication through reports is indispensable. Whether conveying research findings, business updates, or project progress, mastering the art of report writing can elevate your career. ClickUp AI features and Click Up Docs transform the writing process into an efficient, collaborative, and enjoyable journey. So, when you undertake your next report-writing venture, follow the steps, embrace the templates, and let ClickUp be your ally in crafting impactful reports.

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Some academic assignments ask for a ‘report’, rather than an essay, and students are often confused about what that really means.

Likewise, in business, confronted with a request for a ‘report’ to a senior manager, many people struggle to know what to write.

Confusion often arises about the writing style, what to include, the language to use, the length of the document and other factors.

This page aims to disentangle some of these elements, and provide you with some advice designed to help you to write a good report.

What is a Report?

In academia there is some overlap between reports and essays, and the two words are sometimes used interchangeably, but reports are more likely to be needed for business, scientific and technical subjects, and in the workplace.

Whereas an essay presents arguments and reasoning, a report concentrates on facts.

Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a particular purpose and audience. It generally sets outs and analyses a situation or problem, often making recommendations for future action. It is a factual paper, and needs to be clear and well-structured.

Requirements for the precise form and content of a report will vary between organisation and departments and in study between courses, from tutor to tutor, as well as between subjects, so it’s worth finding out if there are any specific guidelines before you start.

Reports may contain some or all of the following elements:

• A description of a sequence of events or a situation;
• Some interpretation of the significance of these events or situation, whether solely your own analysis or informed by the views of others, always carefully referenced of course (see our page on Academic Referencing for more information);
• An evaluation of the facts or the results of your research;
• Discussion of the likely outcomes of future courses of action;
• Your recommendations as to a course of action; and
• Conclusions.

Not all of these elements will be essential in every report.

If you’re writing a report in the workplace, check whether there are any standard guidelines or structure that you need to use.

For example, in the UK many government departments have outline structures for reports to ministers that must be followed exactly.

Sections and Numbering

A report is designed to lead people through the information in a structured way, but also to enable them to find the information that they want quickly and easily.

Reports usually, therefore, have numbered sections and subsections, and a clear and full contents page listing each heading. It follows that page numbering is important.

Modern word processors have features to add tables of contents (ToC) and page numbers as well as styled headings; you should take advantage of these as they update automatically as you edit your report, moving, adding or deleting sections.

Report Writing

Getting started: prior preparation and planning.

The structure of a report is very important to lead the reader through your thinking to a course of action and/or decision. It’s worth taking a bit of time to plan it out beforehand.

Step 1: Know your brief

You will usually receive a clear brief for a report, including what you are studying and for whom the report should be prepared.

First of all, consider your brief very carefully and make sure that you are clear who the report is for (if you're a student then not just your tutor, but who it is supposed to be written for), and why you are writing it, as well as what you want the reader to do at the end of reading: make a decision or agree a recommendation, perhaps.

Step 2: Keep your brief in mind at all times

During your planning and writing, make sure that you keep your brief in mind: who are you writing for, and why are you writing?

All your thinking needs to be focused on that, which may require you to be ruthless in your reading and thinking. Anything irrelevant should be discarded.

As you read and research, try to organise your work into sections by theme, a bit like writing a Literature Review .

Make sure that you keep track of your references, especially for academic work. Although referencing is perhaps less important in the workplace, it’s also important that you can substantiate any assertions that you make so it’s helpful to keep track of your sources of information.

The Structure of a Report

Like the precise content, requirements for structure vary, so do check what’s set out in any guidance.

However, as a rough guide, you should plan to include at the very least an executive summary, introduction, the main body of your report, and a section containing your conclusions and any recommendations.

Executive Summary

The executive summary or abstract , for a scientific report, is a brief summary of the contents. It’s worth writing this last, when you know the key points to draw out. It should be no more than half a page to a page in length.

Remember the executive summary is designed to give busy 'executives' a quick summary of the contents of the report.

Introduction

The introduction sets out what you plan to say and provides a brief summary of the problem under discussion. It should also touch briefly on your conclusions.

Report Main Body

The main body of the report should be carefully structured in a way that leads the reader through the issue.

You should split it into sections using numbered sub-headings relating to themes or areas for consideration. For each theme, you should aim to set out clearly and concisely the main issue under discussion and any areas of difficulty or disagreement. It may also include experimental results. All the information that you present should be related back to the brief and the precise subject under discussion.

If it’s not relevant, leave it out.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The conclusion sets out what inferences you draw from the information, including any experimental results. It may include recommendations, or these may be included in a separate section.

Recommendations suggest how you think the situation could be improved, and should be specific, achievable and measurable. If your recommendations have financial implications, you should set these out clearly, with estimated costs if possible.

A Word on Writing Style

When writing a report, your aim should be to be absolutely clear. Above all, it should be easy to read and understand, even to someone with little knowledge of the subject area.

You should therefore aim for crisp, precise text, using plain English, and shorter words rather than longer, with short sentences.

You should also avoid jargon. If you have to use specialist language, you should explain each word as you use it. If you find that you’ve had to explain more than about five words, you’re probably using too much jargon, and need to replace some of it with simpler words.

Consider your audience. If the report is designed to be written for a particular person, check whether you should be writing it to ‘you’ or perhaps in the third person to a job role: ‘The Chief Executive may like to consider…’, or ‘The minister is recommended to agree…’, for example.

A Final Warning

As with any academic assignment or formal piece of writing, your work will benefit from being read over again and edited ruthlessly for sense and style.

Pay particular attention to whether all the information that you have included is relevant. Also remember to check tenses, which person you have written in, grammar and spelling. It’s also worth one last check against any requirements on structure.

For an academic assignment, make sure that you have referenced fully and correctly. As always, check that you have not inadvertently or deliberately plagiarised or copied anything without acknowledging it.

Finally, ask yourself:

“Does my report fulfil its purpose?”

Only if the answer is a resounding ‘yes’ should you send it off to its intended recipient.

Continue to: How to Write a Business Case Planning an Essay

See also: Business Writing Tips Study Skills Writing a Dissertation or Thesis

Ultimate Guide on How to Write a Report Tips and Sample

Defining a Report

A report is a type of writing that represents information, data, and research findings on a specific topic. The writer is expected to deliver a well-structured, credible, and informative text that dives into the small details of a certain topic, discussing its benefits and challenges.

Reports serve many important purposes. They provide recorded facts and findings. They are used to analyze data and draw insights that can be used for decision-making. Some reports serve as compliance checks to ensure that organizations meet certain standards and requirements. Also, reports are a formal way to communicate valuable information to decision-makers and stakeholders.

A report paper can be academic or about sales, science, business, etc. But unlike other texts, report writing takes much more than getting acquainted with the subject and forming an opinion about it. Report preparation is the most important stage of the writing process. Whether you are assigned to write an academic or a sales paper, before you start writing, you must do thorough research on the topic and ensure that every source of information is trustworthy.

Report writing has its rules. In this article, we will cover everything from how to start a report to how to format one. Below you will find a student research report sample. Check our paper writer service if you want one designed specifically for your requirements.

Student Research Report Sample

Before you read our article on how to write an act essay , see what an informative and well-structured report looks like. Below you will find a sample report that follows the format and tips we suggested in the article.

Explore and learn more about comprehensive but concise reports.

What are the Report Types

As mentioned, there are plenty of different types of report papers. Even though they are very formal, academic reports are only one of many people will come across in their lifetime. Some reports concentrate on the annual performance of a company, some on a project's progress, and others on scientific findings.

Next, we will elaborate more on different sorts of reports, their contents, and their purpose. Don't forget to also check out our report example that you can find below.

Academic Reports

An academic report represents supported data and information about a particular subject. This could be a historical event, a book, or a scientific finding. The credibility of such academic writing is very important as it, in the future, could be used as a backup for dissertations, essays, and other academic work.

Students are often assigned to write reports to test their understanding of a topic. They also provide evidence of the student's ability to critically analyze and synthesize information. It also demonstrates the student's writing skills and ability to simply convey complex findings and ideas.

Remember that the report outline will affect your final grade when writing an academic report. If you want to learn about the correct report writing format, keep reading the article. If you want to save time, you can always buy essays online .

Project Reports

Every project has numerous stakeholders who like to keep an eye on how things are going. This can be challenging if the number of people who need to be kept in the loop is high. One way to ensure everyone is updated and on the same page is periodic project reports.

Project managers are often assigned to make a report for people that affect the project's fate. It is a detailed document that summarizes the work done during the project and the work that needs to be completed. It informs about deadlines and helps form coherent expectations. Previous reports can be used as a reference point as the project progresses.

Sales Reports

Sales reports are excellent ways to keep your team updated on your sales strategies. It provides significant information to stakeholders, including managers, investors, and executives, so they can make informed decisions about the direction of their business.

A sales report usually provides information about a company's sales performance over a precise period. These reports include information about the revenue generated, the total number of units sold, and other metrics that help the company define the success of sales performance.

Sales report preparation is a meticulous job. To communicate information engagingly, you can put together graphs showing various information, including engagement increase, profit margins, and more.

Business Reports

If you were assigned a business report, something tells us you are wondering how to write a report for work. Let us tell you that the strategy is not much different from writing an academic report. A Strong thesis statement, compelling storytelling, credible sources, and correct format are all that matter.

Business reports can take many forms, such as marketing reports, operational reports, market research reports, feasible studies, and more. The purpose of such report writing is to provide analysis and recommendations to support decision-making and help shape a company's future strategy.

Most business reports include charts, graphs, and other visual aids that help illustrate key points and make complex information easy to digest. 

Scientific Reports

Scientific reports present the results of scientific research or investigation to a specific audience. Unlike book reports, a scientific report is always reviewed by other experts in the field for its accuracy, quality, and relevance.

If you are a scientist or a science student, you can't escape writing a lab report. You will need to provide background information on the research topic and explain the study's purpose. A scientific report includes a discussion part where the researcher interprets the results and significance of the study.

Whether you are assigned to write medical reports or make a report about new findings in the field of physics, your writing should always have an introduction, methodology, results, conclusion, and references. These are the foundation of a well-written report.

Annual Reports

An annual report is a comprehensive piece of writing that provides information about a company's performance over a year. In its nature, it might remind us of extended financial reports.

Annual reports represent types of longer reports. They usually include an overview of a company's activities, a financial summary, detailed product and service information, and market conditions. But it's not just a report of the company's performance in the sales market, but also an overview of its social responsibility programs and sustainability activities.

The format of annual report writing depends on the company's specific requirements, the needs of its stakeholder, and the regulation of the country it's based.

Writing Reports Are Not Your Thing?

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Report Format

As we've seen throughout this article, various types of reports exist. And even though their content differs, they share one essential element: report writing format. Structure, research methods, grammar, and reference lists are equally important to different reports.

Keep in mind that while the general format is the same for every type, you still need to check the requirements of the assigned report before writing one. School reports, lab reports, and financial reports are three different types of the same category.

We are now moving on to discuss the general report format. Let's direct our attention to how to start a report.

Title : You need a comprehensive but concise title to set the right tone and make a good impression. It should be reflective of the general themes in the report.

Table of Contents : Your title page must be followed by a table of contents. We suggest writing an entire report first and creating a table of content later.

Summary : The table of contents should be followed by an executive report summary. To create a comprehensive summary, wait until you have finished writing the full report.

Introduction : A major part of the report structure is an introduction. Make sure you convey the main idea of the report in just a few words. The introduction section must also include a strong thesis statement.

Body : The central part of your work is called the report's body. Here you should present relevant information and provide supported evidence. Make sure every paragraph starts with a topic sentence. Here you can use bullet points, graphs, and other visual aids.

Conclusion : Use this part to summarize your findings and focus on the main elements and what they bring to the table. Do not introduce new ideas. Good report writing means knowing the difference between a summary and a conclusion.

Recommendations : A report is designed to help decision-makers or provide crucial information to the conversation, including a set of goals or steps that should be taken to further advance the progress.

Appendices : As a finishing touch, include a list of source materials on which you based the information and facts. If you want your report to get acknowledged, don't neglect this part of the report format.

How to Write a Report Like a PRO

Mastering the report writing format is only a fraction of the job. Writing an exceptional report takes more than just including a title page and references.

Next, we will offer report-writing tips to help you figure out how to write a report like a PRO. Meanwhile, if you need someone to review your physics homework, our physics helper is ready to take on the job.

Start With a Strong Thesis

A strong thesis is essential to a good paper because it sets the direction for the rest. It should provide a well-defined but short summary of the main points and arguments made in the report.

A strong thesis can help you collect your thoughts and ensure that the report has a course and a coherent structure. It will help you stay focused on key points and tie every paragraph into one entity.

A clear thesis will make your report writing sound more confident and persuasive. It will make finding supporting evidence easier, and you will be able to effectively communicate your ideas to the reader.

Use Simple Wording

Reports are there to gather and distribute as much information to as many people as possible. So, the content of it should be accessible and understandable for everyone, despite their knowledge in the field. We encourage you to use simple words instead of fancy ones when writing reports for large audiences.

Other academic papers might require you to showcase advanced language knowledge and extensive vocabulary. Still, formal reports should present information in a way that does not confuse.

If you are wondering how to make report that is easy to read and digest, try finding simpler alternatives to fancy words. For example, use 'example' instead of 'paradigm'; Use 'relevant' instead of 'pertinent'; 'Exacerbate' is a fancier way to say 'worsen,' and while it makes you look educated, it might cause confusion and make you lose the reader. Choose words that are easier to understand.

Present Only One Concept in Each Phrase

Make your reports easier to understand by presenting only one concept in each paragraph. Simple, short sentences save everyone's time and make complex concepts easier to digest and memorize. 

Report writing is not a single-use material. It will be reread and re-used many times. Someone else might use your sales report to support their financial report. So, to avoid confusion and misinterpretation, start each paragraph with a topic sentence and tie everything else into this main theme.

Only Present Reliable Facts

You might have a strong hunch about future events or outcomes, but a research report is not a place to voice them. Everything you write should be supported by undisputed evidence.

Don't forget that one of the essential report preparation steps is conducting thorough research. Limit yourself to the information which is based on credible information. Only present relevant facts to the topic and add value to your thesis.

One of our report writing tips would be to write a rough draft and eliminate all the information not supported by reliable data. Double-check the credibility of the sources before finalizing the writing process.

Incorporate Bullet Points

When writing a research report, your goal is to make the information as consumable as possible. Don't shy away from using visual aids; this will only help you connect with a wider audience.

Bullet points are a great way to simplify the reading process and draw attention to the main concepts of the report. Use this technique in the body part of the report. If you notice that you are writing related information, use bullet points to point out their relation.

Incorporating bullet points and other visual aids in your report writing format will make a report easy to comprehend and use for further research.

While you are busy coming up with effective visual aids, you may not have enough time to take care of other assignments. Simply say, ' write my argumentative essay ,' and one of our expert writers will answer your prayer.

Review the Text for Accuracy and Inconsistencies

After completing report preparation and writing, ensure you don't skip the final stage. Even the greatest writers are not immune to grammatical mistakes and factual mix-ups.

Reviewing what you wrote is just as important as the research stage. Make sure there are no inconsistencies, and everything smoothly ties into the bigger scheme of events. Look out for spelling mistakes and word count.

If you want to further advance your writing skills, read our article about how to write a cover letter for essay .

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How To Write a Report: A Detailed Guide [+AI Method]

• Table of contents

Catherine Miller

Writers often wonder how to stand out from the crowd when writing a professional report.

Unlike articles or blogs, the informative, formal nature of reports can make them feel stiff and boring. And whether you want a top grade or to make an impact on your audience, another dull report probably won’t help.

In my career I’ve written a range of reports for both internal and external audiences—and regularly read reports from industry leaders, too. Top reports are informative and educational, summarizing key information quickly so it’s easy to digest. But the best examples also use high-quality research and concise but compelling language to bring the subject matter to life. 

In this article, I’ll focus on general thematic reports, the kind you may be asked to write at college or work. I’ll give you the lowdown on how to write an effective report that still packs in the facts.

Types of reports

The term “report” comprises a wide genre of documents. If you’re used to other kinds of academic writing, it will help to understand the key qualities that reports share.

What sets reports apart

Reports are similar to other kinds of academic writing in many ways: you’ll still need strong research in the background, clear citations, and a formal language style , for example. 

But several details set reports apart from other forms. Reports:

• Stick to the facts rather than veering into personal opinion or argument
• Save interpretation and recommendations for the end of the piece
• Use clear organizational techniques like bullet points, heading and subheadings, and charts or graphics
• Use concise, clear language that can be easily skimmed

Common types of reports

Reports are used in a wide range of contexts, so make sure you’re writing the right kind of report for your purposes. Here’s an overview of some common types.

Pre-writing steps

Before you set pen to paper, it’s important to do your research and plan your report carefully. Giving yourself plenty of time for this stage will make the actual writing quicker and less rambling. 

1. Define the audience and purpose of the report

If you haven’t already been given a purpose for the report, be sure to define this before you begin. This can help you decide on the type of research you need to do and check if your report is fulfilling its goals while you draft.

Examples of common report aims:

• To demonstrate your understanding of an academic topic or text
• To improve understanding of the work your department is doing, so other departments in the same organization can build on your success
• To raise awareness of a particular problem that your organization can solve

On top of this, ask yourself who your audience is and what is their level of prior knowledge relative to yours. Within a hierarchy, such as a company or school, the audience may be more senior than you (vertical reporting), or at the same level as you (lateral reporting). This can affect what information is relevant to include.

Additionally, note whether it’s an internal or external publication and what your audience might do with the information they learn from your report.

Read the full article: Use AI to better define your audience

2. establish goals and objectives.

If you are writing your report for school or university, check the assessment guidelines for the report before you begin. You’ll need to include all the required elements. 

If you are writing for professional purposes, however, the goals and objectives may be up to you or your department to define. An objective for your report should ideally be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time-Bound).

For example, a lead-generating report can be used for the aim of securing meetings with interested buyers by highlighting a problem that your company can solve, and the impact of your report can be measured by the number of downloads and subsequent meetings within a certain time period. 

An internal report could be used to inform a strategy meeting, and the impact could be measured in how many strategic recommendations are made as a result.

Read the full article: Develop your strategy and goals

3. research and gather information.

A report needs to be based on factual evidence, so the research stage is absolutely key to producing an informative piece. Firstly, you should review the major literature on the topic to make sure you can define and explain key terms and set out any needed context. 

For academic reports, your professor or institution may be able to provide a recommended reading list. Use your college library and make sure you find out which academic journals your institution subscribes to. You can often access these online using sites like JSTOR and Google Scholar . 

You may also want to include primary sources to add originality to your report and make it more appealing to your audience. These could include:

• Original research such as interviews
• Statistics you’ve compiled 
• Details of experiments, tests, or observations you’ve made

It’s really helpful to keep organized notes during your research. Note any key quotations with page numbers, plus publication and author details for each text you reference or read. This will make it much easier to create your citations and bibliography later on. 

You could do this on paper or using flexible software like Notion or Evernote or specialist software like Mendeley or Zotero .

Read the full article: 8 Must-Have Tools for Researchers in 2023 (Including AI)

4. outline your report structure.

Creating an outline before you begin writing is key to successfully drafting a report. 

Start by noting down a skeleton framework, i.e. the main points you want to cover, which you will then develop as you write. In some cases, if you’re clear on what you might include in your report, this step might come before you start researching; alternatively, your main points might change during your research phase.

Although the exact layout of your report will depend on your objectives, a report should include the following sections:

• Introduction
• Summary of context 
• Summary of your main topic or text
• Bibliography

Additional sections that you may want to include, depending on context: 

• An abstract — used in academic contexts. 
• A summary of your findings — useful if you include your own original research (such as interviews or statistics)
• Recommendations for further action or research

Read the full article: How to Properly Write an Outline Using AI

5. write the draft of your report.

Your first draft is your chance to develop the ideas you noted down during outlining. You might need to continue researching as you go, especially if you find that certain areas need more evidence or explanation.

Write your title and abstract

The title of your report should clearly and concisely state what it is about. Your audience may need to quickly select it from a list of other publications, so make sure to use keywords to make your work easy to identify. Remember that this is also your audience’s first impression of your writing!

You may also need to create an abstract for your work: a short summary of your research and findings, giving a quick statement about the problem and/or potential solution, a concise explanation of what you did to investigate it, and your findings in brief. You will probably want to write your abstract after finishing the rest of the report.

Create a table of contents

The table of contents should direct readers to each section of the report with page numbers. You may want to include hyperlinks to relevant sections if you are presenting your document electronically. 

Prepare your sections

Developing each section in full will form the bulk of your drafting work. Make sure each section is adding value to your report.

‍ Balance analysis with facts

Report writing should be factual. There will be times when you need to draw conclusions and make recommendations. However, this analysis should not overwhelm the factual content of your report. Remember, this is not a persuasive opinion piece. Make sure your analysis is grounded in evidence, and keep your recommendations concise. 

Use clear language

A report should clearly inform the audience about the topic at hand. Keep your language precise and easy to understand. Keep sentences and paragraphs at a sensible length. If you use technical terms your audience might not know, include definitions. Try to avoid emotive language that can make the report sound like a persuasive essay. 

Sometimes it can be difficult to achieve all this while writing the first draft, so feel free to come back to improve on it in later drafts.

Use visuals to keep it interesting

Many reports use visuals like graphs, charts, photographs, or infographics. These can convey information quickly and engage your audience by breaking up the text. 

Simple graphs and charts can usually be made in spreadsheet software, but you may want to call on the skills of a graphic designer if your organization has the resources. Make sure to caption and number your graphics.

Cite your sources

Your institution or organization may stipulate a citation model, so double-check what is required before you begin. In general, quotations or anything else taken from another source should be properly cited, including the author’s name, title, and page number, plus other information, depending on format. Citations may be in-text or footnotes. 

It’s a good idea to add citations as you write, because going back and putting them in afterwards can be very fiddly and time-consuming. 

At the end of your report you will also need to provide a bibliography, which lists the texts you have cited. Citation software like Zotero or a bibliography generator like MyBib can make this easier.

Follow an appropriate format

Make sure to check the style guidelines provided by your academic institution or work organization. These might determine the page formatting you need to use (e.g. page numbering, page size, use of images, etc.). If no such guidelines exist, look at other reports from your field to determine what will be clear and useful for your audience.

Read the full article: Essay writing guide

6. edit, review and revise.

Reviewing and revising your work is one of the most important parts of the writing process, so make sure you give yourself plenty of time for this part and avoid rushing to meet a deadline. Review your content first, checking that each section has enough evidence and development, before moving on to editing for clarity and technical accuracy.

Using a reading and writing assistant like Wordtune can make editing at the phrase, sentence, or word level quicker and easier. Wordtune not only finds spelling, punctuation, and grammar errors, but it can also suggest changes to your vocabulary and sentence structure that make your work clearer and more compelling. You can even specify whether you want a more formal or casual tone — most reports should be formal in nature. 

Read the full article: The complete editing guide

Writing a report using an ai prompt (chatgpt + wordtune).

You can use this prompt to generate a useful report:

Please generate a comprehensive report on the topic "[Your Specific Topic Here]". Ensure the report adheres to the following structure and guidelines: Title: Craft a concise and descriptive title that encapsulates the essence of the report. Abstract: Provide a succinct summary (100-150 words) that encapsulates the main objectives, methodology, findings, and significance of the report. Table of Contents: List all the sections and relevant sub-sections of the report for easy navigation. Introduction: Introduce the topic, its background, relevance in today's context, and the primary objectives of this report. Body: Dive deep into the topic. This should include: Background/History: A brief history or background of the topic. Current Scenario: Present relevant data, facts, and figures. Analysis/Discussion: Discuss the implications of the data, any patterns observed, and their significance. Conclusion: Summarize the main findings, discuss their implications, and suggest recommendations or potential future research directions. Additionally, ensure that the content is: - Well-researched and cites reputable sources. - Coherent and logically structured. - Free from jargon, unless necessary, and is accessible to a general audience.

Make sure your next report has an impact

Whether your report is for academic or business purposes, you need to make sure it is well-researched, clearly expressed, and conveys the main points quickly and concisely to your audience. Careful planning and organization can make this process much easier, as well as leaving time to review and revise your work, either manually or with the help of software like Wordtune. Following these tips, your first report is sure to make an impact — and the more you write, the easier it will get.

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10 Tips for Perfect Report Writing

Report writing is an essential skill for many jobs and educational courses. This page shows you correct report writing formats, and gives you 10 top tips to help you write a report.

Report Writing – An Introduction

You might have to write a report at university (an academic report) or as part of your job (a business or technical report).

There are also different reasons for report writing: to present information (such as a lab report or financial report); to present research findings; or to analyse a problem and then recommend a particular action or strategy.

A report can be long or short, formal or informal. The style and vocabulary choice will depend on who is going to read your report, and their level of understanding or expertise.

Reports should be clear and concise, with the information presented logically in sections, with headings and (if necessary) sub-headings.

Report Writing Formats

Reports don’t always follow the same formats or include all the possible, different sections. If you’re unsure about the correct report writing format to use, check with your tutor (at university) or find out the preferred layout that your company uses.

Research report

In it you’ll address a particular situation (saying why it’s worthy of research and referencing other studies on the subject); describe your research methods and evaluate the results of your research; then finally make conclusions or recommendations.

What are the report sections?

Title page – the title of your report, your name, the date, academic information (your course and tutor’s name).

Acknowledgements – if you’ve received help (ie from experts, academics, libraries).

Terms of reference (optional) This gives the scope and limitations of your report – your objective in writing and who it’s for.

Summary / Abstract – in brief, the most important points of your report: your objectives (if you don’t include a terms of reference section), main findings, conclusions and recommendations.

Table of Contents All the sections and sub-sections of your report with page references, plus a list of diagrams or illustrations and appendices.

Introduction Why you’re researching the topic, the background and goals of your research, your research methods, plus your conclusion in brief.

Methods / Methodology / Procedure (optional – if not included in the introduction) How you carried out your research, techniques, equipment or procedures you used.

Main body / Discussion (the longest part of your report) Contains an analysis and interpretation of your findings (often linked to current theory or previous research) divided into headings and sub-headings for clarity. You can also include visual information, such as diagrams, illustrations, charts, etc.

Results (can also go before the main body of the report) The findings of your research (also presented in tables, etc) but without any discussion or interpretation of them.

Conclusion What you can say about the results – your deductions, and the most important findings from your research.

Recommendations (can also be part of the conclusion section) Number these if you have more than one.

Appendices Extra information which is too long for the main body of your report, such as tables, questionnaires, etc.

References All the sources you refer to in your report.

Bibliography (optional) Books, journals, etc which you read or used during your research.

Glossary (optional) Technical or jargon words which your reader might not understand.

Business report

Or you might just need to write a shorter, information-type report.

Title page The report title, your name, the date, the name of the person commissioning the report, the objective of the report.

Management / Executive Summary You can give this to people instead of the whole report. It’s often less than one page and contains the main information – the summary, conclusions and recommendations.

Table of Contents For longer reports, including sections and page references.

Introduction The background of the report, what is included, methods and procedures for getting the information, acknowledgements of help.

Main Body / Discussion This is the longest part of your report, including all the details organised into headings and sub-headings. For example, a description of the current situation / problems.

Summary and Conclusions (can also go before the main body) Summarise the reason for your report, and your conclusions, such as the potential solutions to a problem.

Recommendations (can also go before the main body) Identify your preferred course of action. Number your recommendations if you have more than one.

Appendices Any extra information, such as illustrations, questionnaires used in preparing the report, or a bibliography.

References (optional)

For shorter reports, or information-type reports (such as financial reports or sales reports) the report sections may be:

Title Introduction Main Body / Discussion Recommendations (optional)

10 Report Writing Tips

These report writing tips will save you time and make sure that what you write is relevant. There are five writing tips followed by five language tips.

1. Write your executive summary and table of contents at the end

This means that the section headings and page numbers will be consistent. The executive summary is much easier to write if you have already written the rest.

2. Focus on the objective

Make sure you understand the purpose of your report and who you’re writing it for. If you’re writing a report as part of your university course, read the brief carefully and refer back to it so that everything you write and include is relevant.

If you’re writing a business report, write an objective statement first. This helps you decide what’s going to be relevant and important for the reader. You can use the objective as the title of the report, or put it in the introduction. For example:

[su_quote]To identify new market segments and analyse the competition[/su_quote] [su_quote]To evaluate current HR policies and present new recruitment methods[/su_quote] [su_quote]To examine our R&D strategy and suggest new product development ideas[/su_quote]

3. Plan before you start writing

Gather all your research and relevant information. You might need to interview people, do some background reading or carry out experiments.

Decide on a structure for your report. How are you going to organise the information you have into sections? How can you divide these sections into headings and sub-headings?

Plan your structure by writing all your points on a piece of paper, then grouping these ideas into sections and headings. Alternatively, try a “mind map”. Write a subject word in a box, and then write ideas around this subject word, drawing lines to connect them to the subject word. Doing this can help you see where information is related and where it can be grouped.

Make sure you keep a note of all your references so you can write the references section afterwards. As you plan out the structure of your report, think about how it’s linked to the objective of your report. What conclusions or recommendations can you make? Is there anything unusual that you might need to explain?

4. Use a clear layout

Make your report look more readable and inviting. Here are some ways to help you do this:

Use headings and sub-headings to break up the text. Remember to number these consistently. Here are two alternatives:

Section 1 Sub-section 1(a), 1(b) Sub-sub-section 1 (a) (i), 1 (a) (ii); 1 (b) (i), 1 (b), (ii) Or: Section 1 Sub-section 1.1, 1.2 Sub-sub-section 1.1.1, 1.1.2; 1.2.1, 1.2.2

Include adequate spacing and margins to make the text look less dense

Write well-structured paragraphs. Paragraphs shouldn’t be more than five sentences long. For example, your first sentence is the topic sentence – the main idea of the paragraph. The second to fourth sentences expand on this idea, giving supporting or additional information, commenting on the points raised, or referring to other data. The final sentence concludes the ideas presented, or leads on to the following paragraph.

5. Edit and proof read!

Here’s a check list of what you should ask yourself before submitting your report:

– Is it free of grammatical mistakes, concise and easy to read? – Do the sections follow on logically from each other? – Is each point supported with evidence or data? – Are the conclusions and recommendations persuasive? – Are all the sources correctly referenced?

And finally – have you kept to the report objective or brief?

Report Writing – Language Tips

Aim to write clearly and concisely. Here are five ways to help you do this:

6. Keep sentences short and simple

Include only one main idea in each sentence, with extra information in following sentences, introduced by a appropriate linking word (see below). Avoid writing long sentences with lots of sub-clauses which will make it difficult for your reader to follow you. Aim for sentences which are no longer than 15-20 words.

7. Use linking words

Words and phrases like “Therefore”, “However”, “For this reason”, etc help your reader follow your ideas. For a complete list of linking words (and examples of their use) check out our page on linking words .

8. Use everyday English

Explain jargon or technical language (if you’re writing for a non-technical audience) and include these terms in a glossary.

9. Avoid passive forms where possible

Scientific and technical reports often include passive forms instead of subject pronouns like “I” and “you”, but for business reports you can write more simply and directly.

To make your business report sound more objective, you can use the “third person”. For example, “This report outlines the advantages and disadvantages of company pension schemes.” Other verbs you can use in the “third person” are:

analyze (analyse BrE) “This section analyzes the differences between the two markets.”

describe “This report describes the procedures commonly used in assessing insurance claims.”

discuss “This report discusses the implications of the new building regulations.”

examine “This report examines the impact of natural disasters on our production facilities.”

explain “This section explains the decisions to suspend investment in Europe.”

identify “This report identifies the advantages and disadvantages of relocating our head office.”

illustrate “This report illustrates the main difficulties in opening new branches in Asia.”

outline “This section outlines our R&D priorities.”

review “This report reviews our franchising operations.”

summarize (summarise BrE) “This report summarizes the main points raised at the Shareholders Meeting.”

10. Keep an eye on punctuation

Correct punctuation helps your reader move more easily through your report. If you’re not sure on when to use commas or semi-colons (for example), check out our punctuation guide .

For more help with writing skills, take a look at Business Writing Essentials: How to Write Letters, Reports and Emails .

How To Write A Report For A Formal Or Academic Occasion?

If you are immersed in academic, research, or the business world, it is likely that sooner or later (or even right now), you will have to face the task of report writing. Therefore, knowing how to write a report can save your life.

Here you can find a practical guide which will help you know the appropriate techniques needed in writing a report so that it will comply with standards. If you follow these steps to the letter, you will not only learn the art of making a report, but you will be the best at it.

What Is Report Writing?

Before getting into a subject and teaching you  how to write a good paper , you need to know clearly what you are facing. Therefore, the first thing is to delve a bit into the concept and define it.

A formal report or report essay is a text written in prose form, exposing the results of an investigation, a business process, or the analysis of a particular topic.

This type of report is used as an expository tool in different areas such as business, scientific, literary, or even in the legal field.

A report paper aims to present the reader with an analysis of results in the framework of an investigation, with special emphasis on the conclusions and processes that led to a certain result.

In the business area, brief reports are used to account for progress in different processes within the company or to disclose timely information requested by external entities.

Types Of Reports

There are various types of reports from projects or business to lab reports, let’s take a look at these two generic types.

Business Or Project Report

Business report writing is an assignment which the writer or researcher is required to analyze a situation while using standard management theories to arrive at some recommendations for an improved result.

An example, within a business organization, can be when workers are evaluated or when another company is studied. In essence, we can have a report as a tool used in a research study or in a scientific field.

Academic Report

Another general type is an academic report. These could be book reports, movie reviews, research, and even lab reports.

Academic reports are different from other types with one of the reasons being that they must be written and structured according to a recommended style format such as APA or MLA.

Report Writing Format And Style

If your teacher or instructor doesn’t state otherwise, APA or AP is the best formatting style for writing academic and business reports or other journalistic writings.

Also, the best type of writing style used for producing reports is the formal type. To achieve this, you may want to steer clear of the active voice and use the passive voice more. The active voice sound subjective. Meanwhile, report writing is supposed to be objective and devoid of personal opinions and views.

Report Structure

To write an effective report, you must choose and maintain a certain structure. Check out the correct way to structure your paper.

Executive Summary

Executive summaries are frequently used more in business reports than academic ones. They are used in situations where the entire report is voluminous. Like a newspaper news article, the writer or researcher seeks to capture the entire gist in a few paragraphs before presenting the full paper.

The introduction is the presentation of your report where you must explain in brief words what the work is about. To make an effective introduction, you must answer these questions: what, how, where, and why. If you answer each of these questions and join them with logical connectors, you will surely have a great introduction.

Body Paragraphs

In developing the body paragraphs, you have to expose the subject in the most accurate way possible, explaining the results found through the use of clear arguments.

The body is dedicated to the analysis of the facts. Then, you move on to the synthesis, that is, to the phase which you interpret what happened and get the useful indications for the future.

Finally, you must finalize the text of the document with the conclusions. You take stock of all your work. The conclusion, as the name implies, is the synthesis of what is addressed in your report. Try to write brief conclusions that summarize the most relevant points of the topic addressed

The appendix cannot be mistaken for references, citations, or the bibliography. Appendices, in short, are added text which necessarily aren’t the main idea raised in the article, but are important in the making of the written report.

In principle, to write a report, you can use this standard structure:

• Introduction
• Presentation of the subject treated
• Motivations for choosing the topic
• Purpose of the work
• Phases and hours of work
• People involved in the work and their role
• Body paragraphs
• Presentation of the aspects examined
• Methods followed
• Work evaluation
• Possible difficulties encountered
• Final reflections on the evidence that emerged from the document
• Proposals for the future

Important Report Writing Tips

Before you begin a report,  there are some talking points, tips and report writing skills such as fact gathering,  persuasive writing technique , theoretical knowledge, etc. which you must observe or put into practice even before getting the report prompt. Check them out:

• Choose your goal well

It will seem trivial to start from here, but the result you want to obtain from your report is really the axis of everything. So, before writing a single line of the report, you should ask yourself: “What is the goal I want to achieve? What is the message I want to convey?

• Put yourself in the role of the recipient

This suggestion is not only valid when a report is written. More generally, it’s worth it for every time you sit down and write any kind of document. Putting yourself in the shoes of your recipient is essential: it helps you process the information contained in your report, to make it more understandable.

• Make a list of the things you need to write

Before writing your report, you should know what issues to touch. In summary: writing a report does not make sense if you do not know where you want to go and how. Take a sheet and write on it what are the topics of the project and the order it touches them. It is about choosing the topic to start from, the central topics and the concepts on which to build the end of the report.

• Search authorized sources

Writing a report means being as objective as possible. In fact, this type of document is an analysis of fact and not a creative history. Therefore, your sources must be reliable and objective. You must mention them in the text of your report: they should be based on truth.

• Be simple, clear and concrete

For your reader, you have an obligation to be extremely clear. Here are some tips on how to be more understandable and, consequently, on how to write a report that is more effective:

• Write short sentences
• Use simple language
• Avoid subordinates: force the reader and eliminate concentration
• Be clear, precise, concrete: avoid whirling words full of smoke
• Avoid a baroque or presumptuous style
• Avoid any technical jargon, unless the report is read by those who understand it
• Use tables and charts

Writing a report means exposing facts in a concrete way. And what is better to support facts than a graph or table? Therefore, use these elements to clarify and give even more concreteness to the things you write in your report.

• Insert photos and images

Images and photographs are much more intuitive than words. This also applies when you need to write a report. Therefore, in your reports, insert photographs or images to document, clarify, and exemplify.

• Format the report text

Writing a report also needs giving it a nice look. This means formatting your text appropriately. For example:

• Choose the most appropriate format for maximum readability, both in case the document is printed or read on a monitor.
• Highlight the most important words and concepts in bold.
• Use numbered and bulleted lists for item lists.
• Divide the text into blocks to avoid an unpleasant effect that makes the text look like a single wall.
• Choose an effective title: A very important point of writing a report is what title to give the document. The title must be absolutely clear, you must say what the report contains. You must not be lazy or use word games. Probably, the best time to choose the title is at the end of the report, when the work is finished, and everything is clear.
• Use summaries

If your report is long, it should be divided into chapters. In this case, the use of abstracts is recommended. A summary is a short text, a hundred or two hundred words maximum, which is placed at the beginning of each chapter and explains to the reader what you will find in that part of the report.

• Read the document carefully

Re-reading what is written is an important phase of writing a report. Verify especially that there are no errors in spelling, grammar, or syntax in the report. Also, verify that the sentences are logically linked to each other. In addition, the topic of each sentence should always be clearly expressed.

• Take care of your spelling. Any text loses its seriousness if it has spelling errors.
• Before you start writing your report, you can make summaries to find your main ideas.
• Create a template where you put in words and the things you should say. This will help you at the time of writing to develop your ideas.
• In case you include specific data of an investigation, book, press release, or other documents that have a copyright, you must quote properly and include a bibliography.

To be a successful report writer, you must to know the concept and the various types. Report writing has a definitive structure and style to follow, as already revealed in this article. Try to follow them correctly, and you’d be assured of a great report paper.

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how to write an academic report: Examples and tips

Writing a report should be concise and to the point. It should also be relevant to the topic. Make sure to check your work with someone and read it aloud. Proofreading is also important because computer programs cannot catch every mistake. You may even want to wait a day before you read it to make sure that it is error-free. Keep in mind that an academic report differs from a business or technical report.

Avoiding the present tense

While the present tense is commonly used in academic writing, it isn’t always necessary. When anyone tells you about writing how to write an academic report , you can switch the tense within the same sentence or paragraph when you shift from general statements to more specific examples based on research. Other times, it’s appropriate to use the present tense when you write about a particular event that has changed over time.

The best time to use either tense is determined by the context in which you’re writing. While both are acceptable, you’ll want to ensure that your reader knows when you made your findings. In most cases, the present tense will mean that you’re writing about the time you did the research, while the past tense can be interpreted in different ways.

Introducing your topic

The introduction is the first section of your paper, and it should capture the reader’s interest and make them want to read the rest of your paper. You can do this by opening with a compelling story, question, or example that shows why your topic is important. The hook should also establish the relevance of your paper in the wider context.

The introduction should also have a thesis statement, which should explain your research paper’s topic and point of view. This statement will guide the organization of your essay. A strong thesis statement is specific, clear, and able to be proved.

Stating your thesis statement

Your thesis statement should be clear and concise. It should be able to persuade others while laying out your strong opinions. It should also contain an argument. For example, you could argue that the government should ban 4×4 pickup trucks. Or, you might argue that the amount of foul language in movies is disproportionate to the amount of it in real life.

A strong thesis statement contradicts a commonly held viewpoint. It is not too complex to explain over the course of the paper. It should also express a single main idea.

Putting together an outline before writing your report

Putting together an outline is a great way to organize your paper. Outline the content that you will cover and how you plan to support your main point. You can use a list format or alpha-numeric format to organize your outline. Regardless of the format, your outline should have a parallel structure and include the same types of words in each section. It is also a good idea to include citations whenever possible.

When you’re writing, outlining will help you get the most out of your writing. It will save you time and effort when writing because you can make full sentences and well-developed essays with an outline.

Avoiding jargon

One of the most important things to remember when writing an academic report is to avoid using jargon. These words are often difficult to understand, and although they are useful shorthand for scientists, they may alienate non-specialist readers. The use of jargon is the most common reason that readers complain about writing, but there are ways to replace these terms with plainer versions.

Jargon is specialized terminology used by a specific group. It can be incredibly difficult to understand if you’re not part of the group. It also tends to make your writing more complicated and shows that you’re trying to show off your knowledge.

How to Write an Academic Report – Examples and Tips

While the present tense is commonly used in academic writing, it isn’t always necessary. When writing an academic report, you can switch the tense within the same sentence or paragraph when you shift from general statements to more specific examples based on research. Other times, it’s appropriate to use the present tense when you write about a particular event that has changed over time.

Owen Ingram is a research-based content writer, who works for Cognizantt, a globally recognised professional SEO service and Research Prospect , a Servizio di redazione di saggi e dissertazioni . Mr Owen Ingram holds a PhD degree in English literature. He loves to express his views on a range of issues including education, technology, and more.

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How to write a good (enough) report -Andy Ruina, [email protected] (Created 8/2/2000 and modified 53  times, most recently on 1/16/2024)

What is good writing? It is text that convinces somebody of something. How do you do it? You form your idea, write it badly, and then revise again and again, trying to be more and more clear. What's the key?  Don't fuss over 'writing well'. Instead, try to get your message across.

I. Why this essay?

I want my students to write reports that I will like reading.   I hope this essay helps them do that. And maybe it could help other students too.  There are two main questions:

        1) What is a good report? and           2) How do you write a good report?

By 'good' I only mean 'good enough' or 'not too bad'. That's all I can do; a good writer can  edit what I write and make it smoother, shorter and more clear. So, not too bad is all I can do and all that I can hope for from my students.  By 'how?' I  mean what should one do and think to improve a report that is not yet good enough to make it good enough.

Who am I to give writing advice?  I have dyslexia, bad hand-writing, bad spelling, a small vocabulary and I don't know what a past participle is (or was). I got bad grades for writing from first grade through college. And, there are already thousands books and web pages about writing by good writers.

Yet, over the last few decades, after people stopped trying to teach me how to write, I have written a lot, read lots of student reports, and learned a little about writing.  The expert advice on writing, in the books and web pages by experts,  is mostly about more advanced things, more subtle or refined things, than the basic things that I understand and care about here.

The main thing I have learned and would like to convey is in the few sentences under the title above.  Repeating,

If someone could have got this basic message through the thick skull of the younger me, I would have had a better writing life, and thus, maybe,  a better life generally. By spreading the message above over the many paragraphs below, maybe some of the ideas will seep into some peoples' heads better than they seeped into the head of the younger me.  Maybe  into your head. I am trying to help you get something into your head earlier in your life than  it got in to mine.  If so, then I think that you will write better, please the people around them more, and be happier.

This is only about non-artistic practical writing; it's not about writing Haiku or songs. Check list.   Sections III (" Sixteen things that lots of students don't get" ) and IV.A  (" Organizatio n ") make up a check list. These are the key things, or features, your paper should have, and should not have, by the time you call it done.

II. What is a good report?

A. A report is not abstract art, it's a message

I used to think that good hand-writing was ornate and flowery and beautiful to an artist's eye. But, I could never make my messy scrawls smooth like that. Now, I think that the most important thing about hand-writing is that it be legible. Then, people can read it, which is the point. By printing slowly, I can write legibly. My blackboard work might look like it's written by an eight-year-old, but usually people can read it. I've gone through the same transition with my thoughts about writing. I used to think of writing as an alien thing unto itself, a kind of art to be judged by its own arty value system. So, I thought that good writing used fancy words in fancy ways with metaphors, alliteration and all that. Something I can't do. Now I think that the most important thing about writing is that it be understandable. And, using simple words that I understand, I can write things that are undestandable! At least kind of. Now, I think of both hand writing and text writing as a means to an end, an end that is achievable. Namely,

the goal of writing is not an abstract notion of `good writing', but communication.

Conversely, now I know that a stream of beautiful big words, written with beautiful handwriting (or great computer formatting), and even with perfect spelling, clear topic sentences, perfect grammar and all that, can still be bad writing.

Lots of students seem to have the same misconception that I had about writing. They think that writing is some strange artistic thing to be judged  by a value system that they don't quite get. So, they have the same writing problems that I had; they try to please some abstract writing god they can't quite see out of the upper corner of their eye. Instead, they should just try to say something clearly to another person. If you are one of those confused people that think that writing is making beautiful art, then here is the key:

Don't think 'good writing is beautiful',  think  instead 'good writing is clear'.

As someone with a lifelong alienation from the humanities, discovering this functional aspect of writing is liberating. It turns writing from a foreign artistic task that I used to rebel against, into more of puzzle or an engineering problem: an essay is like a computer program. The reader is like a computer; and the reader's new outlook is like the computer output. So, writing is like programming ...  and debugging. That functional view of writing makes it more straightforward and, for me, more approachable.

Actually,  just shifting the goal, from style to communication, is almost enough to make good writing, or at least good-enough writing. Even if you have weak language skills, once you make your goal saying something, rather than trying to show that you are skilled at language, you can, if you try and revise, write tolerably.

B. Write to change what is in someone else's head

Your goal is to change (to alter) your readers' minds. Then, maybe,  you can change their actions. After they have read your stuff, people should know more, and maybe they should think, feel or act differently in a way that will please you, or them, or both.

Some writing guides say, " Writing is communicating to an audience for a purpose. " They mean that, when you write, you should keep your reader and intent in mind. This approach comes naturally if you are pleading to get a boyfriend or girlfriend back, asking your parents for money, questioning the registrar about a bill, or complaining to a teacher about a grading policy. In those contexts you know who you are writing to and what you want. But when, instead, the explicit goal is to satisfy a teacher's demand that you write a paper, it is not so easy to focus on audience and message. So, even the first step, figuring out who you are writing to and how you want to change their thoughts, is a special challenge in school-like situations.

Here is a possible approach for school writing. As a student writing about your research you want your advisor, future students and possibly readers of a technical journal to learn things from you. You want these people to be more successful when they try to pick up where you left off. Your writing should tell your readers what question you are asking, should make them interested in it, and should make them understand and believe your answer. If you succeed, they will not only learn something and enjoy being engaged, but they will also think better of you and, by association, the people around you. Your readers are probably already interested in your general problem, so your main goal is to teach them as much as possible about it. If their work depends on yours, it will go better because they have learned from your report.

Warning. Don't just write for a specific audience, and only that audience. When writing for Professor Smith, keep in mind other people like Professor Smith. That is, don't make reference to, or make your message depend on, things that only you and Professor Smith both know, and that you both know that you both know. For example, don't write "... on the lab scope ... in class ...". Instead write "... on the lab oscilloscope (HP model 3468B)...in ENGRD 2030 Dynamics lecture on Feb  1, 2021 ...". Even Professor Smith will understand better that way.

C. How? Trial and error

The basic method is trial and error. That is, to write well you repeatedly create, test and reject. This is how biological evolution works; survival of the fittest. This is the essence of the scientific method, of problem solving, of design, of computer programming, and most things that involve discovery or creation. The only sure way to make good things, including good writing, is to make things (some good and many bad) and keep the good parts and throw out the bad.  You  repeatedly create, test and reject. If you are willing to try out new things, check if they work, and are willing to toss them  out if they don't work, then you can learn, discover, design ... and write. How? You  first write something that might be good but is much more likely bad. Then, you rearrange words, phrases, sentences and paragraphs. Are the new groups of words an improvement (that is, do they better get your message across)? If so, keep them. If not, change them or throw them out. Do this many times,  and you will have something that is good, or at least good enough.

Isn't there a better way? Here is one unrealistic fantasy.  You wake up in the middle of an inspired dream and write down what the voice is telling you. Here is another. You follow the directions in The Handbook of Intelligent Design.  Unfortunately, back here, back in the real non-fantasy world, those inspired dreams are rare. And that handbook of intellgent design doesn't exist.  Fortunately, here is a funny thing. If you get really involved in trying to figure out what you are trying to say, and to whom, and trying to say it better and better, you sometimes do, eventually, get inspired. After hours or days of grueling trial and error those rare inspired moments sometimes do come. And,  if there i s a secret of "intelligent design", it is probably just this: apply common sense trial and error again and again. Isn't there a better way? Usually not, not unless you are the Beethoven of writing.

In summary, so far, first think about what you are trying to say and to whom. Next, try to say it. Then, keep improving what you have so far by a process of trial and error.

III. Sixteen things that lots of students don't get

Student reports too-often provoke some common reactions from me. Here are some.

A) Aim for content not style. Often students, instead of trying to say something, they try to mimic some high-school-essay style. Why? Because they have almost no practice at communicating for a purpose. As a student it is hard to sincerely engage in an artificial task like "Write an essay to convince X of Y". For example I was once asked to pretend to write to my grandmother to convince her of the benefits of coed dorms. I couldn't pretend to care about that. So I wrote about my guess about the teacher's concept of  X (my grandmother) and tried to convince that fictional person (my imaginings of my teacher) what I thought that he thought about Y (coed dorms). So I tried to write in a style I thought my teacher would like, as if that was an end in itself.  I feel like many students write to impress a poor-fidelity model of thier teacher. Or they might try to "communicate to an audience for a purpose" in this indirect way: they try to let their teacher know that they have a poetic and creative nature so deserve a good grade. Too many students  pursue these perversions of the real goals of writing. Or,  they might not have rebelled against the school writing game, the game in which they were to pretend to have a goal that they didn't really have. So they never even tried. For some mixture of these reasons, in school  many students get almost no practice of writing for a reasonable purpose. And, away from school, many students also have little experience of writing for a purpose. So, when forced to write, they forget about communication and resort to chasing, with more or less sensitivity,  their teachers' tastes, a style they hope will give a good grade.  Most often the result is writing that is of no use and no fun. (And might sometimes get a good grade because the teachers are also playing a game of pretending to be someone who they are not.)

Communication , not style, should be your main goal. Fancy wording that you think might please a junior-high writing teacher has a high chance of not communicating well. So, it is bad writing.

What should you do? Try to give a clear message, not one with good form. In the end the style might be OK  because, as the architects say, 'form follows function'. That is, if you make something function well, here that means creating text that communicates well, then good form, good style, might happen as a consequence. But,  if the form and style don't end up great, so what? It's the function, communication, that you are trying for.

B) An affected tone is bad. Don't pretend to be someone else, and write things that you think that person knows, and in their style. Write what you know in your style. Faking content, or trying to be funny, cute or grand, especially when that doesn't come naturally to you, will turn people off.

C) A bad first draft is O.K. Once you have some sense of what you want to say, you need to get it onto your computer. Your amorphous idea is like a lump of unformed clay you need to put on the table before you form it into pottery. Or, your collection of small ideas is like a pile of jigsaw pieces. You need to scatter them on a table before you start putting them together. So, you need to produce something, something that has in it, perhaps poorly formed or scattered, some of your ideas. It's ok if it's bad, because you are going to revise it. As Marc Raibert said, "Good writing is bad writing that was rewritten."  Don't let your anxiety about quality stop you from starting. You're going to fix it anyway.

D) Writing is work, mostly revising. Once you have a lump of clay on a table you then have to shape, reshape and finally glaze it. That reshaping and finishing takes most of the time. Same with writing. Once you have your ideas on paper in some form, you have to change and rearrange them, and that revising takes most of the time.

Puzzle pieces. Thinking of your writing fragments as puzzle pieces, you have to find the pieces that belong next to each other. You have to discover that you are putting together a different picture than you planned. You have to make new pieces that are needed for that new picture. You have to get rid of the pieces that you realize belong to some other puzzle. And you have to get rid of duplicate pieces.

Kill your darlings. Throwing away defective, irrelevant or duplicate pieces, pieces that you had carefully made (that is, text you carefully crafted, your "darlings"), is really hard. Nonetheless, you should kill your darlings .  This is not as bad as it seems. When you delete, say,  a paragraph, you are not throwing away all you learned while writing it. You are getting rid of something distracting or  clearing space for something better. So, the writing and tossing is not really lost time.  It's just part of the process.

99%. When I was in 8th grade my next door neighbor was Bernard Malamud, a successful writer. His wise words to me, the kid getting Cs and Ds in English, were "They say writing is 5% inspiration and 95% perspiration, but really its more like 1% and 99%." I thought he was overstating this to make a point. Like I have thought at times about "if there's a will there's a way" or "it's not what you know but who you know" or "the university is more interested in research money than in education" etc. But it turns out that `writing is mostly sweat' is one of those exaggerated sounding sayings which, despite our wanting to dismiss it as over-statement,  is basically true. I didn't get it then. So maybe you won't get it now. But it's true. So the sooner you accept it the better. Writing is more revision than creation, more perspiration than inspiration,

E) Writing takes time. If you are talented and your paper is not for journal publication then maybe you can do with 5 revisions or so. But good papers often go through much more revision than that.  And that takes time. I can type 50 words per minute. But, on average I can write and edit about one word per minute. One. For me writing is 50 times slower than typing. The work of making something clear is about 50 times slower than typing it out. This is backwards from what I used to think about writing. I used to think that writing was hard because my pen and keyboard were too slow to keep up with my thoughts. Actually it's the opposite, my thinking can't keep up with my typing, not by a long shot. OK, I am older and maybe I think slower. But I don't think that's it. I think that what I used to think of as ideas that I couldn't write fast enough were probably chaotic thought fragments, topics but not coherent ideas. I was wrong to think that the slow part was, effectively, dictating to myself. The slow parts of writing are the formulation of the ideas in your head, and then refining, again and again, what you have already written down.

50:1. To finish a good paper everyone, even someone who got A grades for writing all through school, needs to do lots of revising. For Malamud, for me, and probably for you, good writing comes from editing and revising. Especially rearranging words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and sections for clarity. Then, as the writing gets better in superficial ways, you will better see that you need to change deeper things, and add new ideas. These changes will cause a new need for fixes, for spelling checks, and so on. This way, 50 words per minute of typing leads to 1 word per minute of acceptable writing.

Slow is fast. This slowness of writing may seem depressing. But it isn't. Why? Because, even if you, like me, have little talent, it means that if you put in the time you will eventually revise your initial mess into something that is good enough. And, on the plus side, slow isn't really slow. If you polish a word a minute for 40 hours a week, for 50 weeks a year, and for 50 years, you will write 6 million polished words in your life time, about 20,000 book pages, about 7 times what Shakespeare wrote.  That is, one word per minute is actually wildly prolifically fast! You have to be 7 times slower than a word per minute  to keep back with Shakespeare.

F) Writing is a sport. The time might pass better if you think of writing as a game. The goal is to get your reader to understand and believe you. Each small change in your text is like a move in the game. Think of a reader as a customer and that you want to sell them some knowledge. Or, think of your readers as lost sheep, wandering off unaware of where they should go. You must herd them in, reasoning from basic common broad ideas (a big field) to the central line of your argument (the gate you want them to go through). Whether you think of it as a game, a sale, or herding, the sport is trying to funnel your reader from the infinite world of alternative ideas into your intended line of thought.

G) Good writing is usually friendly. Tough or stern language often pokes people into fighting back. Even if you think your logic is air tight, or if your message is really a command, if you write with a pedantic, condescending or demanding tone it may make your reader rebel, stop paying attention and to miss your great explanation. For example, if you read between the lines, this essay is  a warning (to my students): "Do you want to get a good grade from me? Then follow the advice here!" Nonetheless, with the exception of the previous three sentences, I have tried to write it with a friendly tone.

H) Get inside your reader's head. What do they know and what don't they know? When reviewing things they already know, you should do it clearly and concisely. That way you build trust. Then move on. When teaching your readers something new, you can't base it on other things they don't know yet. You can't assume they know what you are trying to say, or how it contrasts with other things you are not saying. Often students seem to be thinking "You know what I mean, Professor Smith" in between sentences. Instead, imagine Professor Smith's friend is reading, and after each sentence she is saying to herself  "I don't know what th f*ck you are talking about!". Then, write to prevent that.

I) Good writing is organized. There is a conflict between structure and flow. Your organization has to deal with that.

1) Text is one dimensional, ideas are not. There is an unresolvable conflict between the linear arrangement of words on a page and the multidimensional interconnected nature of human thought. Writing is one dimensional, ideas are not. Neither massively cross-linked hypertext nor concept maps ,  are yet acceptable replacements for conventional linear text. So,  you cannot allude to every connection between ideas at every mention of one of the ideas. To avoid tangling your linear text you often have to postpone mention of key connections. You may write one phrase about one idea, the next about a second idea, and a third about the connection between the two. Even though, in your mind, the first two ideas are meaningless without the third. 2) Put similar ideas near each other. This applies within a sentence, from one sentence to the next, from one paragraph to the next, and from one section to the next. Although you may have written your first draft with an organization in mind, you will inevitably discover a new organization during revision. As you put similar ideas near each other,  sentences and paragraphs will condense and congeal into larger and larger sensible units. And redundancies, things you need to delete, will be revealed. To put your text into order you need to work both on the small scale and the large. You have to put related words, phrases and sentences near each other. And you also have to move whole paragraphs, and maybe whole sections, to keep related ideas as near to each other as possible. 3) Hierarchical structure. When you are done, a paper will have an implicit organized outline with a depth of 3 or 4 levels from sections to subsections to paragraphs to sentences. Each should have a purpose. For example, each paragraph should have a scope that you could express as a paragraph title. This paragraph title could end up being the first sentence, might end up being a low-level heading, or might be clear enough so as not to need explicit expression. 4) Logical flow . A given sentence either starts a new idea or explains more about the idea in the previous sentence. A sentence's role should be clear by the place of the sentence in the document (i.e., the lead sentence in a section), or by meaning (the sentence's content makes its role clear), or by wording (e.g., use of "furthermore", "however", "additionally"). Although structured, the paper should also flow as a logical linear stream.

J) Writing helps your thinking . It is hard to force your multidimensional ideas into a linear stream of words. But forcing ideas into an ordered sequence of words usually shows mistakes in your thinking.  That is, you usually have to edit your ideas too. Although you write to share ideas you already have, writing your ideas helps you to develop them. Extruding your wide-ranging thoughts into one thin line of ordered text forces a scrutiny of them that is hard to achieve any other way. It's not just writing that is hard work, thinking is also hard work. And systematic refinement of your writing forces you to think. Trying to write well about something is a tool that helps you understand your own thoughts. Most often, by trying to write clearly about an idea, you clarify the idea in your own mind.

K) Get someone to read what you wrote. You need sincere readers, not necessarily good editors, to see what gets across. When you try an engineering design you inevitably discover pieces that jam, circuits that overheat, and user abuse that you hadn't thought of. Most computer programs fail when first run. Similarly when someone reads your work, no matter what care you took in writing it, something won't get across to them. They will see ambiguities and paradoxes you hadn't imagined, and they will have questions that you obviously have to answer, but unfortunately didn't (yet).

Finding defects is good. Good readers of your early drafts will point out, or reveal by their misunderstandings, big problems. So it is easy to feel defeated. But that is the wrong reaction. The bigger the flaws discovered, the more your paper will be improved. The next reader will help you find more flaws, and even flaws in your first edits. And so on. Your readers help you with one of the key parts of the evolutionary process: finding errors. Finding errors is good because then you can fix them.

A bad first draft is good because that lowers the threshold for starting to write. But, don't give a bad first draft to your test readers. Even though you know multiple drafts are coming, you shouldn't give your test-readers something with many known flaws. That would be like testing a new machine that you know has missing pieces. When it doesn't work you don't learn much. The same with test-readers and writing. Known flaws will effectively hide the flaws you don't know about yet. The better the document you give to a test reader, the better she can find problems which you didn't find, the more your document can be improved from your reader's help.

L) Hiding the truth is lying. As a rule, you shouldn't lie and deceive. Omitting things to hide them is also deception, so it is generally a bad idea. Hiding by omission, conveniently not mentioning something a reader would want to know, will unfairly mislead some readers and anger others. On the flip side, being open about flaws, or about the limited scope of your work, can help build readers' confidence in you, and therefore in the results that you do want to present. So, for example, if you didn't accomplish a central goal, saying that prominently and clearly will help build your readers' trust.

M) Credit assignment must be clear. People whose main product is information, people like professors and graduate students, are sensitive about intellectual property. To them, your presenting their ideas or diagrams, or those of other students and researchers, without proper citation, is stealing (so says Peter Woodbury -- private communication). A reader has to know which parts of the paper are original and who should get credit for the rest. Simply rephrasing someone else's paragraph is still plagiarism. Even if you are not just being lazy by copying, but instead are just attempting to explain something well, you will irritate people by not giving credit where it is due. It's not just a matter of giving fair credit. Appropriate citations also give useful information about the history of the ideas and where a reader can learn more.

Plagiarism . An aside about extreme plagiarism. Students struggling with English often look for model sentences in papers and books. If they find sentences that serve their purposes, they might use exactly those sentences in their report. This direct copying is the most extreme form of plagiarism. It can get you expelled from school or fired from a job. As Peter Woodbury said, "If you love someone else's sentence, put it in quotations, and cite it."

N) A picture is worth a thousand words. The figures in your paper should tell your story. Even if there are just two figures, a reader should get the gist of your message by looking at just those two. As for your writing, your figures should answer the questions which would naturally come to a curious reader. And, like good writing, a figure shouldn't be a puzzle to solve, but something that explains and clarifies. 

Figures, like text, inevitably need lots of revision. It's true that "A picture is worth a thousand words". But, not usually stated is the dual aspect of this. A picture is as hard to create as are a thousand words. It is not unusual to spend a couple of days, a thousand minutes, to make and finalize a single figure.

O) Spelling, grammar, etc. Good language can't make a bad idea good. But bad language can make a good idea useless. At one extreme, really bad language is simply impenetrable, turning a sentence into a problem the reader can't solve. Less extreme, but also an issue, is the set of picky readers who know, and care too much, about the rules of writing. Those people would rather notice that you spelled 'thier' wrong than notice  that what you have written,  right t-h-e-r-e in front of t-h-e-i-r eyes, is your perfect solution to their biggest problem.They're blinded by your bad spelling into not seeing the gold that you are offering them. Picky fools. But, for better or worse, some of these picky fools will be your readers. And, unfortunately, even not-picky readers will sometimes be distracted by bad English. Here are some of the hundreds of things that will help focus your readers attentions on your content: match a sentence's length with the complexity of the idea it expresses; use variety in vocabulary, but not by using inexact synonyms which interfere with clarity and precision; don't use SJOA (specialized jargon or acronyms); don't mix tenses or voices; and, as mentioned above, use grammar and punctuation that stay in the bounds of accepted usage. Here is a trick that catches lots of language usage errors:

read your paper out loud and make sure it sounds good to you.

But, again, don't let your concern about literary style interfere with your central goal of being clear. An editor (or literate friend) can fix your bad spelling and grammar, but no one can fix your ideas if they can't understand them.

P) Wikipedia.   Google searches and Wikipedia etc are a great place to learn things that you don't know about. And,  a great way to write a mediocre report is to paraphrase Wikipedia.  Imagine that you are  a good student at a top school, someone who  is also a good writer. Imagine that you spend a day  studying the web and writing a summary of what you read.   That makes up a pretty bad research report.  What's wrong with it?  It's not targeted enough towards your goals. It probably lacks a central question (a thesis) and therefor doesn't reveal an answer.  It doesn't show that you have your own view of the subject.

IV. Organizing your work and time

A. The structure of a paper

Here is one way to organize a paper. If you know a better one, use that instead.

1. Title page. This page should have the title, the full author list, all details about how to reach all the authors in the near and distant future, the date of the paper and of any revisions, and the context of the paper (e.g., final report for a certain class with a certain number of credits, Major and year of the student, for submission to a certain journal, etc). The title page should include anything that a random person, picking up the report 10 years in the future, would want to know about its context. To save paper, this could also be header material on the first page. 2. Abstract. This is a complete and concise summary, a restatement,  of the whole paper. It explains the context, the results and the applications. How long? Two to ten sentences and never longer than a double-spaced page. Because an abstract optimizes completeness and accuracy in a limited space, it may be dense reading. Even a good abstract may only be fully intelligible to an expert, or to someone who has already read the full paper. There's a sample abstract in item VI, below. Answers, not questions.  The abstract should be concise answers to questions. It should not be a list of question topics. `In the summer of 2019  I went to Finland.' is a good sentence for an Abstract.  `This paper is about where I went one summer." is not.  3. Introduction. Here you entice your readers. You bring them from what is commonly understood to the point of appreciating the questions your research answers. You introduce the ideas that led to the present work. You explain the possible applications. Keep in mind people who should be interested, but aren't yet, and what might engage them.  Most importantly, you pose the questions that the rest of the paper answers. If you start with "Since the dawn of civilization mankind has always been fascinated with X", or anything that smells like that, you have missed something that I wrote above (e.g. IIA, IIIA, IIIB). 4a. Methods and 4b. Results. In these sections you explain what you did and what you found. These are the core of the paper. You may divide them into various sections as appropriate (e.g., Model Explanation, Experimental Method, Governing Equations, Solution Method, Results, etc.). These parts of the paper should not spend too much time being philosophical, introspective or self critical. 5. Discussion. Here you discuss, critically, what you found. What are the implications? What approximations were central? What is surprising? What are possible generalizations? What natural questions does your work leave unanswered? What future work seems needed? etc. This part of the paper can, and should be, self critical. ** Note : Sections 4 & 5 above, the main presentation of your original work, might be combined into one section or divided into several sections. However you organize that central part of your report (4 & 5), use  clear headings  or subheadings to make your organization clear.**

6. Conclusion. The conclusion is a summary of the results. As opposed to the abstract, it does not need to summarize the methods and does not need to be as concise.

7. Acknowledgments. A relatively complete acknowledgment section shows courtesy to those who helped and funded you, and informs readers of your working environment. Usually one or two short sentences are enough.

8. Citations/references. A full list of the papers, texts and websites mentioned in the paper with full reference information. It is best for each listing to include the title of the book or article, unless the target journal explicitly forbids this. Every reference should have been mentioned at least once in the text.

9. Figures and captions. It is easiest for the reader if the figures and captions appear in the text and near to the text that refers to them. Only put figures at the end if a journal demands that.

10. Appendices. Here you put details that are needed for completeness but whose complete expression would interfere with the flow of your main text. These things have a place, perhaps small, in your central argument, yet are long or complex. Also at the end, you can put things you might like to keep for your records, but take too much space for a published paper. Things like computer programs, mathematical proofs, detailed graphs, work chronologies (`first I tried ...'), purchase lists, and shop drawings.

B. How should you spend your time?

Some suggestions:

1. Before you write. The initial steps.

a. Think about your message until you can say it out loud. Then do, and see if it makes sense to a friend or two. b. Then, organize the text, somehow jotting down the essential flow within and between sections. Use a short conventional outline, a few short lists, or a diagram with ideas connected by arrows (a 'concept map'). An outline that catches the essence of the structure can free you to think about the details as you write. But an outline with too high a ratio of detail to thought can feel restrictive. I find detailed outlines more intimidating than helpful. I find it easier to let the structure evolve during editing. But others think the opposite, that your organization should be clear in your mind before you start to write. If making a detailed outline helps you, then write one. If the idea of an outline paralyzes you, keep the outline broad and vague and organize as you go. Either way can work. c. After organizing as well as you  find useful, start writing. Write in the order that feels most natural to you. You need not write in order. Start with the conclusions if that is what comes to you first. The first draft should be as complete and accurate as possible, but not concise, polished or optimally structured. As you write, allow yourself to modify the structure, especially by putting similar ideas together. But don't let revision slow your transfer of information from mind to paper too much. Attempting to get ideas onto paper while also trying to finely hone the text can be crippling.

2. Then comes revision. Even if you are a writing genius, a scientific genius, or both, you probably have to revise. A lot. You must now go through many cycles of testing, changing, adding, deleting, and reworking.  Again and again, for hours and hours. Experienced writers will tell you that revision is 90% of the effort, or 95%, or 99% or more. But no writer  will say that revision  is 80% of the effort or less. After the uphill struggle of forming and idea and writing a first draft, revision is mostly all downhill. But it's a long glide,  it's most of the trip. When you have a decent first draft you can be satisfied that you are almost done. In a way. You only have 90% (or maybe 95% or 99%) of the work to finish up.

B. What is the best report you can write?

The perfect report is perfectly clear, perfectly convincing, perfectly interesting, perfectly blah blah blah. But you don't know what that is or how to get there. What you can do is make your present draft less bad.  You can find ways to put similar ideas closer together, to make sentences more clear, to make the central ideas more prominent, to make the text more smooth, to remove unneeded repetition, to remove unrelated ideas, etc. When you can't find a flaw, or if all attempts to fix the flaws that you have found are not improvements, then that is the best report you can write. Do you want to do better than that? Then you need to know things about writing that I don't know.  The best report you can write is one that you can't find a way to improve.

V. Final comments

My apology . As Pascal said in 1657, "I'm sorry this letter is so long. I didn't have time to write a shorter one." After at least 70 hours of writing, reading, and revising, I could still make this essay shorter, and better in other ways, by following more of my own advice. But advice is cheap. I'm a fat sloppy guy explaining how to be trim and fit. And, while I am apologizing,  I am sorry that  there are all those great bits of advice about good style that are simply over my head. So they are not here. Sorry again.

Want more advice? After a few drafts of this essay I was pointed to this 1985 how-to guide by Marc Raibert, the guy who got me into robots. I like his tone and what he says. Here is another one, much in the spirit of this one. Devin Jindrich, another locomotion person, developed a whole www site to help you use writing to help your thinking: Reasoning and Writing for Science .  Guy Hoffman has a good essay about the structure of a good paper, with lots of tips and also references where you can find more writing advice.

******** Please check the check list. This is a request to my students: Please consider Sections III ("Sixteen things ...") and IV.A ("The structure of a paper"), above, as a check list. Do your best at each element. When you think your report is done, go down those lists again and change your paper until you  are not subject to the criticisms listed and you have a paper that is appropriately structured. *******

Thanks to Steve Collins for provoking this essay and then, eventually, helping to tune it up.  And to Rachel Ruina whose story about how to teach writing to second graders is its core. Also, to Saskya van Nouhuys, Dave Nutter, Hermann and Barbara Riedel, Peter Woodbury, Steven Youra, Dirk van Nouhuys, Sidney Orlov, Rudra Pratap, Marcia Poulsen, Tomomi Ueda, Seppo Korpela, Manoj Srinivasan, Javad Hasaneini, Atif Chaudhry, Betta Fisher, Devin Jindrich and Matias Waller, and others who I have undoubtedly forgotten,  for criticisms and for suggested additions, deletions, and reorganization that helped make this essay little resemble its first draft.

VI. Sample abstract

Here is an abstract that Manoj Srinivasan and I wrote. We got fan mail about this from ever-critical Art Kuo, "This is perhaps the most concise, clear, and beautifully written abstract I've ever read. It's a poem. ...The success of your soda can abstract is that each sentence moved you forward, it told essentially a complete story from motivation to main finding, and it did it all in remarkably few words."  I don't know what drugs he was taking, but I'd like some.

Title: Rocking and rolling: a can that appears to rock might actually roll. Abstract: `A beer bottle or soda can on a table, when slightly tipped and released, falls to an upright position and then rocks up to a somewhat opposite tilt. Superficially this rocking motion involves a collision when the flat circular base of the container slaps the table before rocking up to the opposite tilt. A keen eye notices that the after-slap rising tilt is not generally just diametrically opposite the initial tilt but is veered to one side or the other. Cushman and Duistermaat [Regular Chaotic Dyn. 11, 31 (2006)] recently noticed such veering when a flat disk with rolling boundary conditions is dropped nearly flat. Here, we generalize these rolling disk results to arbitrary axi-symmetric bodies and to frictionless sliding. More specifically, we study motions that almost but do not quite involve a face-down collision of the round container's bottom with the tabletop. These motions involve a sudden rapid motion of the contact point around the circular base. Surprisingly, similar to the rolling disk, the net angle of motion of this contact point is nearly independent of initial conditions. This angle of turn depends simply on the geometry and mass distribution but not on the moment of inertia about the symmetry axis. We derive simple asymptotic formulas for this "angle of turn" of the contact point and check the result with numerics and with simple experiments. For tall containers (height much bigger than radius) the angle of turn is just over pi and the sudden rolling motion superficially appears as a nearly symmetric collision leading to leaning on an almost diametrically opposite point on the bottom rim.'

Of course when Manoj and I read it now, we see how to make it clearer. For example, the key idea, that what looks like a slipping collision is really an extremely fast rolling motion, isn't prominent enough. We didn't revise, revise, and revise again, enough times!

VII. Rejects: my writing gems

Here are some fragments I worked on and, at least at some point, liked. But later when revising I thought they were redundant, off-topic, distracting or otherwise bad. So I edited them out. I really shouldn't show them to you. But, I want you to see what beautiful things I threw away so you will feel better about throwing things out yourself.

Marc Raibert suggests titling a section of your paper "My Writing Gems". Then put your formerly-wonderful, but now deleted text, there. Then save that. in a special private place. This supplements "kill your darlings" with "and bury them in a special graveyard."

My writing gets good only after I have worked on it a lot .

The main reason to write is to move a collection of facts and ideas into someone else's head.

Communication, in writing or otherwise, is transmission of information. Because your readers probably don't have extrasensory perception, writing can only convey content by having it. The quality of writing cannot transcend the quality of the information being transmitted.

This evolutionary process is sufficient, if not efficient,

Many teachers are also off track this way, having been trained in the same system. Us teachers too-often grade by an abstract image we hold of "good writing" as defined by adherence to various guidelines (spelling, grammar, topic sentences, fancy words etc.), not by success at transmitting information.

Your readers will likely pick up on whether you are writing to sound good or to get something across.

Much as we hope or pretend that they would, the exceptions to these truths don't negate their core validity. Writing just is more grinding than freeform conceptualization, both for an experienced story teller and for you and I.

The image of the talented skilled writer dashing off something lucent and concise, like puzzle pieces falling out of a box pre-assembled, is probably a fantasy twice over. First, it probably rarely happens. Second, when it does happen it probably doesn't happen. Einstein's paper on the theory of relativity is said to be great, and maybe he did not write 20 drafts of it. But I guess he worked and worked to organize the ideas in his head, not just the basic science, but how he was going to communicate his ideas. He probably had to do his 95% to 99% of perspiration, just like the rest of us. If ever there was a writer who had the talent and practice to do less editing it was the author of The Elements of Style, E. B. White. But his classic story Charlotte's Web has eight known drafts, and maybe there were more.

You should respect your reader's free will.

Your paper is a treasure map. It should tell your reader what valuable thing they can find, and it should show them how to find it.

Imagine a completed jigsaw puzzle where someone left in a piece that belonged to a different puzzle!

Your opponents are all the possible other ideas out there in the universe that are not what you are trying to get across.

The repeated testing and selecting of written ideas is editing.

As William Zinsser said "The essence of writing is rewriting."

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• Academic writing
• How to write a lab report

How To Write A Lab Report | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on May 20, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment. The main purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method by performing and evaluating a hands-on lab experiment. This type of assignment is usually shorter than a research paper .

Lab reports are commonly used in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This article focuses on how to structure and write a lab report.

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Table of contents

Structuring a lab report, introduction, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about lab reports.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but they usually contain the purpose, methods, and findings of a lab experiment .

Each section of a lab report has its own purpose.

• Title: expresses the topic of your study
• Abstract : summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
• Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
• Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
• Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
• Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA )
• Appendices : contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

Although most lab reports contain these sections, some sections can be omitted or combined with others. For example, some lab reports contain a brief section on research aims instead of an introduction, and a separate conclusion is not always required.

If you’re not sure, it’s best to check your lab report requirements with your instructor.

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Your title provides the first impression of your lab report – effective titles communicate the topic and/or the findings of your study in specific terms.

Create a title that directly conveys the main focus or purpose of your study. It doesn’t need to be creative or thought-provoking, but it should be informative.

• The effects of varying nitrogen levels on tomato plant height.
• Testing the universality of the McGurk effect.
• Comparing the viscosity of common liquids found in kitchens.

An abstract condenses a lab report into a brief overview of about 150–300 words. It should provide readers with a compact version of the research aims, the methods and materials used, the main results, and the final conclusion.

Think of it as a way of giving readers a preview of your full lab report. Write the abstract last, in the past tense, after you’ve drafted all the other sections of your report, so you’ll be able to succinctly summarize each section.

To write a lab report abstract, use these guiding questions:

• What is the wider context of your study?
• What research question were you trying to answer?
• How did you perform the experiment?
• What did your results show?
• How did you interpret your results?
• What is the importance of your findings?

Nitrogen is a necessary nutrient for high quality plants. Tomatoes, one of the most consumed fruits worldwide, rely on nitrogen for healthy leaves and stems to grow fruit. This experiment tested whether nitrogen levels affected tomato plant height in a controlled setting. It was expected that higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer would yield taller tomato plants.

Levels of nitrogen fertilizer were varied between three groups of tomato plants. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer, while one experimental group received low levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and a second experimental group received high levels of nitrogen fertilizer. All plants were grown from seeds, and heights were measured 50 days into the experiment.

The effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were tested between groups using an ANOVA. The plants with the highest level of nitrogen fertilizer were the tallest, while the plants with low levels of nitrogen exceeded the control group plants in height. In line with expectations and previous findings, the effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were statistically significant. This study strengthens the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants.

Your lab report introduction should set the scene for your experiment. One way to write your introduction is with a funnel (an inverted triangle) structure:

• Start with the broad, general research topic
• Narrow your topic down your specific study focus
• End with a clear research question

Begin by providing background information on your research topic and explaining why it’s important in a broad real-world or theoretical context. Describe relevant previous research on your topic and note how your study may confirm it or expand it, or fill a gap in the research field.

This lab experiment builds on previous research from Haque, Paul, and Sarker (2011), who demonstrated that tomato plant yield increased at higher levels of nitrogen. However, the present research focuses on plant height as a growth indicator and uses a lab-controlled setting instead.

Next, go into detail on the theoretical basis for your study and describe any directly relevant laws or equations that you’ll be using. State your main research aims and expectations by outlining your hypotheses .

Based on the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants, the primary hypothesis was that the plants with the high levels of nitrogen would grow the tallest. The secondary hypothesis was that plants with low levels of nitrogen would grow taller than plants with no nitrogen.

Your introduction doesn’t need to be long, but you may need to organize it into a few paragraphs or with subheadings such as “Research Context” or “Research Aims.”

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A lab report Method section details the steps you took to gather and analyze data. Give enough detail so that others can follow or evaluate your procedures. Write this section in the past tense. If you need to include any long lists of procedural steps or materials, place them in the Appendices section but refer to them in the text here.

You should describe your experimental design, your subjects, materials, and specific procedures used for data collection and analysis.

Experimental design

Briefly note whether your experiment is a within-subjects  or between-subjects design, and describe how your sample units were assigned to conditions if relevant.

A between-subjects design with three groups of tomato plants was used. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer. The first experimental group received a low level of nitrogen fertilizer, while the second experimental group received a high level of nitrogen fertilizer.

Describe human subjects in terms of demographic characteristics, and animal or plant subjects in terms of genetic background. Note the total number of subjects as well as the number of subjects per condition or per group. You should also state how you recruited subjects for your study.

List the equipment or materials you used to gather data and state the model names for any specialized equipment.

List of materials

35 Tomato seeds

15 plant pots (15 cm tall)

Light lamps (50,000 lux)

Nitrogen fertilizer

Measuring tape

Describe your experimental settings and conditions in detail. You can provide labelled diagrams or images of the exact set-up necessary for experimental equipment. State how extraneous variables were controlled through restriction or by fixing them at a certain level (e.g., keeping the lab at room temperature).

Light levels were fixed throughout the experiment, and the plants were exposed to 12 hours of light a day. Temperature was restricted to between 23 and 25℃. The pH and carbon levels of the soil were also held constant throughout the experiment as these variables could influence plant height. The plants were grown in rooms free of insects or other pests, and they were spaced out adequately.

Your experimental procedure should describe the exact steps you took to gather data in chronological order. You’ll need to provide enough information so that someone else can replicate your procedure, but you should also be concise. Place detailed information in the appendices where appropriate.

In a lab experiment, you’ll often closely follow a lab manual to gather data. Some instructors will allow you to simply reference the manual and state whether you changed any steps based on practical considerations. Other instructors may want you to rewrite the lab manual procedures as complete sentences in coherent paragraphs, while noting any changes to the steps that you applied in practice.

If you’re performing extensive data analysis, be sure to state your planned analysis methods as well. This includes the types of tests you’ll perform and any programs or software you’ll use for calculations (if relevant).

First, tomato seeds were sown in wooden flats containing soil about 2 cm below the surface. Each seed was kept 3-5 cm apart. The flats were covered to keep the soil moist until germination. The seedlings were removed and transplanted to pots 8 days later, with a maximum of 2 plants to a pot. Each pot was watered once a day to keep the soil moist.

The nitrogen fertilizer treatment was applied to the plant pots 12 days after transplantation. The control group received no treatment, while the first experimental group received a low concentration, and the second experimental group received a high concentration. There were 5 pots in each group, and each plant pot was labelled to indicate the group the plants belonged to.

50 days after the start of the experiment, plant height was measured for all plants. A measuring tape was used to record the length of the plant from ground level to the top of the tallest leaf.

In your results section, you should report the results of any statistical analysis procedures that you undertook. You should clearly state how the results of statistical tests support or refute your initial hypotheses.

The main results to report include:

• any descriptive statistics
• statistical test results
• the significance of the test results
• estimates of standard error or confidence intervals

The mean heights of the plants in the control group, low nitrogen group, and high nitrogen groups were 20.3, 25.1, and 29.6 cm respectively. A one-way ANOVA was applied to calculate the effect of nitrogen fertilizer level on plant height. The results demonstrated statistically significant ( p = .03) height differences between groups.

Next, post-hoc tests were performed to assess the primary and secondary hypotheses. In support of the primary hypothesis, the high nitrogen group plants were significantly taller than the low nitrogen group and the control group plants. Similarly, the results supported the secondary hypothesis: the low nitrogen plants were taller than the control group plants.

These results can be reported in the text or in tables and figures. Use text for highlighting a few key results, but present large sets of numbers in tables, or show relationships between variables with graphs.

You should also include sample calculations in the Results section for complex experiments. For each sample calculation, provide a brief description of what it does and use clear symbols. Present your raw data in the Appendices section and refer to it to highlight any outliers or trends.

The Discussion section will help demonstrate your understanding of the experimental process and your critical thinking skills.

In this section, you can:

• Interpret your results
• Compare your findings with your expectations
• Identify any sources of experimental error
• Explain any unexpected results
• Suggest possible improvements for further studies

Interpreting your results involves clarifying how your results help you answer your main research question. Report whether your results support your hypotheses.

• Did you measure what you sought out to measure?
• Were your analysis procedures appropriate for this type of data?

Compare your findings with other research and explain any key differences in findings.

• Are your results in line with those from previous studies or your classmates’ results? Why or why not?

An effective Discussion section will also highlight the strengths and limitations of a study.

• Did you have high internal validity or reliability?
• How did you establish these aspects of your study?

When describing limitations, use specific examples. For example, if random error contributed substantially to the measurements in your study, state the particular sources of error (e.g., imprecise apparatus) and explain ways to improve them.

The results support the hypothesis that nitrogen levels affect plant height, with increasing levels producing taller plants. These statistically significant results are taken together with previous research to support the importance of nitrogen as a nutrient for tomato plant growth.

However, unlike previous studies, this study focused on plant height as an indicator of plant growth in the present experiment. Importantly, plant height may not always reflect plant health or fruit yield, so measuring other indicators would have strengthened the study findings.

Another limitation of the study is the plant height measurement technique, as the measuring tape was not suitable for plants with extreme curvature. Future studies may focus on measuring plant height in different ways.

The main strengths of this study were the controls for extraneous variables, such as pH and carbon levels of the soil. All other factors that could affect plant height were tightly controlled to isolate the effects of nitrogen levels, resulting in high internal validity for this study.

Your conclusion should be the final section of your lab report. Here, you’ll summarize the findings of your experiment, with a brief overview of the strengths and limitations, and implications of your study for further research.

Some lab reports may omit a Conclusion section because it overlaps with the Discussion section, but you should check with your instructor before doing so.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

• Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
• Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

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Cash-strapped Trump is now selling $60 Bibles, U.S. Constitution included

Rachel Treisman

Then-President Donald Trump holds up a Bible outside St. John's Episcopal Church in Washington, D.C., during a controversial 2020 photo-op. Brendan Smialowski/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

Then-President Donald Trump holds up a Bible outside St. John's Episcopal Church in Washington, D.C., during a controversial 2020 photo-op.

Former President Donald Trump is bringing together church and state in a gilded package for his latest venture, a $60 "God Bless The USA" Bible complete with copies of the nation's founding documents.

Trump announced the launch of the leather-bound, large-print, King James Bible in a post on Truth Social on Tuesday — a day after the social media company surged in its trading debut and two days after a New York appeals court extended his bond deadline to comply with a ruling in a civil fraud case and slashed the bond amount by 61%.

"Happy Holy Week! Let's Make America Pray Again," Trump wrote. "As we lead into Good Friday and Easter, I encourage you to get a copy of the God Bless The USA Bible."

Consider This from NPR

Why trump's persecution narrative resonates with christian supporters.

The Bible is inspired by "God Bless the USA," the patriotic Lee Greenwood anthem that has been a fixture at many a Trump rally (and has a long political history dating back to Ronald Reagan). It is the only Bible endorsed by Trump as well as Greenwood, according to its promotional website .

The Bible is only available online and sells for $59.99 (considerably more expensive than the traditional Bibles sold at major retailers, or those available for free at many churches and hotels). It includes Greenwood's handwritten chorus of its titular song as well as copies of historical documents including the U.S. Constitution, Declaration of Independence and Pledge of Allegiance.

"Many of you have never read them and don't know the liberties and rights you have as Americans, and how you are being threatened to lose those rights," Trump said in a three-minute video advertisement.

"Religion and Christianity are the biggest things missing from this country, and I truly believe that we need to bring them back and we have to bring them back fast."

'You gotta be tough': White evangelicals remain enthusiastic about Donald Trump

Trump critics on both sides of the aisle quickly criticized the product, characterizing it as self-serving and hypocritical.

Conservative political commentator Charlie Sykes slammed him for "commodifying the Bible during Holy Week," while Democratic Sen. Amy Klobuchar of Minnesota critiqued him for "literally taking a holy book and selling it, and putting it out there in order to make money for his campaign."

Trump says the money isn't going to his campaign, but more on that below.

Klobuchar added that Trump's public attacks on others are "not consistent with the teachings of the Bible," calling this "one more moment of hypocrisy." Tara Setmayer, a senior adviser for anti-Trump Republican PAC the Lincoln Project, called it "blasphemous ."

And former Rep. Liz Cheney, a Republican from Wyoming, trolled Trump with a social media post alluding to his alleged extramarital affairs.

"Happy Holy Week, Donald," she wrote. "Instead of selling Bibles, you should probably buy one. And read it, including Exodus 20:14 ."

Christianity is an increasingly prominent part of his campaign

Trump has made a point of cultivating Christian supporters since his 2016 presidential campaign and remains popular with white evangelicals despite his multiple divorces, insults toward marginalized groups and allegations of extramarital affairs and sexual assault.

And his narrative of being persecuted — including in the courts — appears to resonate with his many Christian supporters.

Trump has increasingly embraced Christian nationalist ideas in public. He promised a convention of religious broadcasters last month that he would use a second term to defend Christian values from the "radical left," swearing that "no one will be touching the cross of Christ under the Trump administration."

He made similar comments in the Bible promotional video, in which he warned that "Christians are under siege" and the country is "going haywire" because it lost religion.

What to know about the debut of Trump's $399 golden, high-top sneakers

"We must defend God in the public square and not allow the media or the left-wing groups to silence, censor or discriminate against us," he said. "We have to bring Christianity back into our lives and back into what will be again a great nation."

Trump himself is not known to be particularly religious or a regular churchgoer. He long identified as Presbyterian but announced in 2020 that he identified as nondenominational .

A Pew Research Center survey released earlier this month found that most people with positive views of Trump don't see him as especially religious, but think he stands up for people with religious beliefs like their own.

Trump said in the promotional video that he has many Bibles at home.

"It's my favorite book," he said, echoing a comment he's made in previous years. "It's a lot of people's favorite book."

The Impact Of Christian Nationalism On American Democracy

Trump's relationship to the Bible has been a point of discussion and sometimes controversy over the years.

In 2020, amid protests over George Floyd's murder, he posed with a Bible outside a Washington, D.C., church, for which he was widely criticized. U.S. Park Police and National Guard troops had tear-gassed peaceful protesters in the area beforehand, seemingly to make way for the photo-op, though a watchdog report the following year determined otherwise .

That same year, a clip of a 2015 Bloomberg interview, in which Trump declines to name his favorite — or any — Bible verse resurfaced on social media and went viral.

Bible sales are unlikely to solve Trump's financial problems

An FAQ section on the Bible website says no profits will go to Trump's reelection campaign.

"GodBlessTheUSABible.com is not political and has nothing to do with any political campaign," it says.

However, the site adds that it uses Trump's name, likeness and image "under paid license from CIC Ventures LLC."

Trump is listed as the manager, president, secretary and treasurer of CIC Ventures LLC in a financial disclosure from last year.

Here's what happens if Trump can't pay his $454 million bond

Trump's sales pitch focuses on bringing religion back to America.

"I want to have a lot of people have it," he said at one point in the video. "You have to have it for your heart and for your soul."

But many are wondering whether Trump has something else to gain from Bible sales while facing under mounting financial pressure.

There's his presidential reelection campaign, which has raised only about half of what Biden's has so far this cycle. Trump acknowledged Monday that he "might" spend his own money on his campaign, something he hasn't done since 2016.

There's also his mounting legal expenses, as he faces four criminal indictments and numerous civil cases. Trump posted bond to support a $83.3 million jury award granted to writer E. Jean Carroll in a defamation case earlier this month, and was due to put up another $454 million in a civil fraud case this past Monday.

Trump is on the verge of a windfall of billions of dollars. Here are 3 things to know

His lawyers had said last week that they had approached 30 companies for help making bond, but doing so was a "practical impossibility" — prompting New York's attorney general to confirm that if Trump did not pay, she would move to seize his assets . On Monday, the appeals court reduced the bond amount to $175 million and gave Trump another 10 days to post it.

Trump has evidently been trying to raise money in other ways.

The day after the civil fraud judgment was announced, he debuted a line of $399 golden, high-top sneakers , which sold out in hours . The company behind his social media app, Truth Social, started trading on the Nasdaq exchange on Tuesday, which could deliver him a windfall of more than $3 billion — though he can't sell his shares for another six months.

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No, California’s wage bump for fast food workers isn’t doomsday for restaurants. Here’s why

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As the minimum wage for fast food workers increases in California, many headlines are predicting mass layoffs and price increases. These headlines are based on an outdated theory that doesn’t apply to fast food restaurants, argue two economists.

Guest Commentary written by

Michael Reich

Michael Reich is an economics professor and chair of UC Berkeley’s Center on Wage and Employment Dynamics at the Institute for Research on Labor and Employment.

Justin Wiltshire

Justin Wiltshire is an assistant professor of economics at the University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada, and an affiliate of UC Berkeley’s Center on Wage and Employment Dynamics at the Institute for Research on Labor and Employment.

Today, the minimum wage for California fast food workers will increase to $20 an hour, or 25% above the state’s $16 level. And a first-of-its-kind fast food council will give workers, employers and state government the opportunity to come together and set standards for the industry.

But rather than celebrating, many headlines are predicting mass layoffs , major burger price increases and even the end of fast food as we know it in California.

These headlines reflect an unsophisticated understanding of an outmoded and simplistic theory: In Econ 101, if you increase the price of labor, employers will use less of it or pass along the higher costs to consumers. 

This explanation ignores that fast food restaurants have and use their power to set wages and employment levels well below the Econ 101 level. The modern theory of labor markets actually recognizes employers’ wage-setting power and that a higher minimum wage can help overcome this power, ultimately raising both pay and employment. 

Outside the theoretical world, economists have conducted hundreds of studies on the actual effects of minimum wage. They repeatedly find that increasing the minimum wage raises the pay of low-wage workers, without leading to even minor job losses . Prices increase by minimal amounts that are too small to deter anyone from buying a burger or taco.

Our latest contribution  to this research looked at what happened in fast food restaurants after California and New York nearly doubled their minimum wage to $15 over seven and a half years, from the end of 2013 to the beginning of 2022. We compared federal data on fast food jobs in the 36 most populous counties in California and New York – where the minimum wage jumped dramatically – to similar combinations of counties in states that kept the minimum wage at the federal level of $7.25 an hour. 

We found that fast food employment in California and New York did not fall, compared to employment trends in the lower-wage areas. In fact, in the low-unemployment years after the pandemic, fast food employers in the $15 counties added workers. 

Pizza Hut operators in California recently announced they were laying off delivery drivers and would rely on Uber Eats, DoorDash and other gig delivery services. Analysts blamed the layoffs on the  new $20 pay floor . But Pizza Hut  began working with those services  in 2022 – not to save money but because they couldn’t hire enough drivers. Other national pizza chains have already partnered with delivery companies.

Recognizing all of this, a different question emerges: How do we square the absence of negative employment effects with the theory that higher wages means fewer jobs?

The answer is power.

When employers have too much power in the labor market, they can (and do) pay workers considerably less. Workers take the low-paid jobs, often because they seem to be the best option available at the time. But those artificially low wages lead workers to quit when they find better-paying options – or when they’re just tired of working for such low wages.

As a result, hiring and maintaining staffing levels becomes more difficult for employers, leaving them with unfilled vacancies. 

In recent years, fast food and other low-wage workers have reset the power equation. They have taken to the streets, city halls and state houses to demand better pay, and they have convinced politicians around the country to raise the minimum wage.

By raising pay to meet the higher minimums, fast food restaurants were better able to attract workers to fill the vacant jobs. And those workers stayed longer. 

Lower employee turnover and fewer vacancies demonstrate how higher minimum wages can result in more jobs. Lower turnover also helps restaurant owners because more experienced workers will be more productive, while the owners save on recruitment and retention costs. 

What about prices? Won’t fast-food customers pay a lot more because of the higher wages? 

Pundits claim that a 25% increase in the minimum wage means a 25% increase in prices. Again, the real world provides a different answer.

We examined how minimum wage increases in California and New York changed McDonald’s prices. Every dollar increase in the minimum wage led McDonald’s to raise the price of a $5 Big Mac by just 12 cents. 

Fast food companies are reporting higher sales  and bigger profits  than before the pandemic. They have absorbed higher wage costs and remained profitable without reducing fast food jobs.

Time and time again, research – and reality – show that raising fast-food workers’ pay in California will only lead to higher living standards for workers and a more equitable economy.

Which fast food workers will get paid more in California?

California’s fast food workers are getting a raise. But the labor-industry truce is fraying

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Top Democrats won't join calls for Justice Sotomayor to retire, but they still fear a Ruth Bader Ginsburg repeat

WASHINGTON — Democratic senators are not joining calls on the left for liberal Justice Sonia Sotomayor to retire . But for the first time, they’re publicly expressing an unease that history could repeat itself after Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg’s refusal to step down in 2014 ended in the Supreme Court lurching sharply to the right.

Ginsburg, then 81 and a cancer survivor, could have retired and been replaced by a Democratic appointee when President Barack Obama was in office and his party controlled 55 Senate seats. She rejected the calls — and died in September 2020, allowing then-President Donald Trump to replace her.

It was a history-making moment: Ginsburg’s successor, Justice Amy Coney Barrett, gave rise to a 6-3 conservative majority . Barrett went on to cast a deciding vote to overturn the landmark Roe v. Wade abortion rights ruling less than two years later.

With that humbling history in mind, some liberal commentators say Sotomayor — who is 69, a lifelong diabetic and the oldest member of the court’s liberal wing — should retire while Joe Biden is president and Democrats control the Senate, echoing similar calls directed at Ginsburg a decade ago that went unheeded.

Democratic senators who serve on the Judiciary Committee remain haunted by the Ginsburg precedent. None are publicly calling on Sotomayor to step down, but they say they hope it doesn’t happen again and create a 7-2 conservative majority.

“I’m very respectful of Justice Sotomayor. I have great admiration for her. But I think she really has to weigh the competing factors,” said Sen. Richard Blumenthal, D-Conn. “We should learn a lesson. And it’s not like there’s any mystery here about what the lesson should be. The old saying — graveyards are full of indispensable people, ourselves in this body included.”

Blumenthal emphasized that Sotomayor is “a highly accomplished and, obviously, fully functioning justice right now.” He added that “justices have to make their personal decisions about their health, and their level of energy, but also to keep in mind the larger national and public interest in making sure that the court looks and thinks like America.”

Senator: Ginsburg 'might have rethought' it

Sen. Sheldon Whitehouse, of Rhode Island, the No. 2 Democrat on the committee, said he hasn’t given much thought to Sotomayor’s future and is “not joining any calls” for her to leave the court.

But he warned that if the six-member Republican majority were to grow, it would further empower the court's “extremist wing.” Occasionally, he said, a couple of conservative justices “hold themselves back” and contain the scope of the court’s rulings.

“Run it to 7-2 and you go from a captured court to a full MAGA court,” Whitehouse said in an interview. “Certainly I think if Justice Ginsburg had it to do over again, she might have rethought her confidence in her own health.”

But Sen. Mazie Hirono, D-Hawaii, who also sits on the Judiciary Committee, said she’s “not going to be talking about anybody choosing to retire” when asked about Sotomayor.

Others are less shy about pointedly calling on Sotomayor to vacate her seat. There has been a flurry of op-eds on the issue and some law professors and legal advocacy groups have similarly weighed in.

“This isn’t personal. This isn’t about one individual justice," said Molly Coleman, executive director of the progressive People’s Parity Project. "It’s nothing to do with what an incredible legal talent Justice Sotomayor is. It’s about what’s in the best interests of the country moving forward.”

Asked about the liberals calling on Sotomayor to retire, White House spokesman Andrew Bates said: “President Biden believes that decisions to retire from the Supreme Court should be made by the justices themselves and no one else.”

To some liberals, the reluctance of elected officials to call on Sotomayor to step aside is confounding.

“All the people in the liberal legal community are putting hurting Sonia’s feelings ahead of the prospect of a 7-2 court. Insane,” said one Democrat who has worked on judicial nominations and is prohibited from speaking publicly about the justices. “So they don’t say anything about her retiring when they all think she should.”

Sotomayor hasn't signaled any plans to go

The calls involving Sotomayor come at a perilous moment for Democrats, as polls show Biden is far from certain to beat Trump in their rematch. The party currently controls 51 Senate seats, but faces a daunting challenge to keep the majority, defending three seats in the red states of West Virginia, Montana and Ohio and five more in purple states in November's elections. Even if Biden wins re-election, losing the Senate would give Republicans an effective veto over liberal nominees.

There are obvious differences between the Ginsburg and Sotomayor situations. In 2014, Ginsburg was 12 years older than Sotomayor is now. Ginsburg, in 2014, had served on the court for 21 years. Sotomayor will reach her 15-year milestone in August.

There are no signs that Sotomayor has any plans to step down. She remains an active questioner during Supreme Court arguments. Some commentators, however, seized on recent remarks made during an appearance in California , when she said she was “tired” and working harder than ever.

“And to be almost 70 years old, this wasn’t what I expected,” she said, according to Bloomberg Law.

Her health has also been subject to scrutiny, mostly because of her diabetes.  

Sotomayor, via a court spokeswoman, did not respond to a request for comment.

Even some of those who urged Ginsburg to step down a decade ago are holding fire on Sotomayor, including Erwin Chemerinsky, an influential liberal law professor who is the dean of the University of California Berkeley School of Law.

In 2014, Chemerinsky wrote a much-discussed article saying that Ginsburg’s refusal to step down “could end up hurting her legal legacy on the court.”

Now, citing Sotomayor’s age, Chemerinsky sees no such urgency.

“I think that is a significant difference and do not see a basis for calling for Justice Sotomayor to retire at this time,” he said in an email.

While the long-term impact could be huge, Sotomayor's choice is not as immediately pivotal. Even if she leaves this year and is replaced by a Democratic nominee, it would merely shore up a liberal minority that lacks the votes to move the court to the left without the buy-in of at least two conservative colleagues.

'Life is pretty good for a retired justice'

Melissa Murray, a professor at New York University School of Law and a former Sotomayor law clerk, said the justice remains “very robust” and has given no indications of retiring.

“She’s never said anything to me. She’s never said anything publicly,” she added.

That is in stark contrast to Ginsburg, who in 2014 responded to the resignation calls with defiance.

“So tell me who the president could have nominated this spring that you would rather see on the court than me?” she told Reuters .

Blumenthal said that justices shouldn’t fear retirement.

“Life is pretty good for a retired justice,” he said. “They continue to sit on cases, they get paid on par with what they’ve received before. She’s a highly respected intellect and figure with a great record of accomplishments. So she would have a lot of opportunities for continued public service.”

On the other side of the aisle, 90-year-old Sen. Chuck Grassley, R-Iowa, a former chairman of the Judiciary Committee, said he wouldn’t call on a justice to retire. He will be 95 when his current Senate term ends.

“Everybody’s got to make that personal decision,” Grassley said. “And I wouldn’t comment on it for somebody else, because that’s their decision. Just like it’s my decision to run for re-election.”

Sahil Kapur is a senior national political reporter for NBC News.

Lawrence Hurley covers the Supreme Court for NBC News.

The Kim Mulkey way

The lsu coach holds grudges, battles everyone — and keeps winning. but at what cost.

TICKFAW, La. — In the two sisters’ minds, the old house remains as it was: a one-story brick ranch a hundred yards off the road, white fence under two ancient oaks, tin roof long before it all caved in.

Their father built on the farmland he had inherited. Dug a swimming pool, poured the concrete for a basketball court, carved two softball fields into pasture. His two girls, born less than a year apart, would grow up running and hiding and disappearing among the pines.

“I just miss the memories,” Tammy, the 60-year-old younger sister, says.

They’re in the backyard in her favorite, shooting baskets with Daddy by starlight. It feels so real, she says. So precious and warm.

“I wish I could have it all back,” she says.

FIFTY MILES SOUTH AND WEST , a massive crowd is here to watch the older sister, to wear sequins like her, to cheer on her team. Five decades have passed since Kim Mulkey’s father first bounced a basketball to his daughters, explaining the keys to victory.

Speed. Stamina. Grit.

The game itself hasn’t changed much, but everything else around Mulkey has. It’s a Sunday in early March, the same day Pete Maravich’s 54-year-old career scoring record will fall. More than 13,000 people are packed into the LSU arena named for Maravich, and Tigers alumnus and former NBA superstar Shaquille O’Neal is in the tunnel. He’s wearing a T-shirt with a picture of star LSU forward Angel Reese on the front and her nickname, “Bayou Barbie,” in hot pink letters on the back.

Reese strolls onto the floor. Fans chant “One more year!” pleading with her to stay in college. And because the value of her name, image and likeness (NIL) rights is estimated to be worth multiples more than the $240,000 WNBA maximum salary, she just might.

“Times are different,” Mulkey will say in a news conference following the game. “You can be beautiful. You can be talented. You can be tough. You can be you.”

Few live that last part more than Mulkey, who wears feathers almost as dramatically as she ruffles them. Her outfits during games are legendary, and during last year’s NCAA tournament , fans wanted to see Reese and her teammates tear through the bracket, sure. But they also wanted to see what their coach might wear, say or do next.

She explodes at officials and is suspicious of reporters. Mulkey declined repeated interview requests for this story, and after LSU received an email from The Washington Post seeking comment on various elements of this story, she used two NCAA tournament news conferences to take aim at The Post’s reporting , threatening legal action in the event of “a false story.” LSU declined to comment.

“Not many people are in a position to hold these kinds of journalists accountable,” she said. “But I am, and I’ll do it.”

It’s by no means her first or most high-profile controversy. In 2013, the NCAA suspended Mulkey for a tournament game after she criticized referees. She later publicly defended Baylor, her former employer, amid a sexual assault scandal in its football program. In November, she told reporters after a road game that they could blame her if they were sick at Thanksgiving.

“I ain’t a sissy,” she said , holding a tissue and choking back sniffles. “I’ve got some kind of cold. It might be covid, but I ain’t testing.”

She is also known to hold grudges and clash with players, including about their appearances and displays of their sexuality, according to interviews with former players and news reports . Mulkey and Brittney Griner, the coach’s biggest star at Baylor, have feuded for more than a decade. And while Griner’s 294-day detainment in a Russian prison eventually required White House intervention, it wasn’t enough to ease tension long after Griner first said Mulkey encouraged gay players to hide their sexuality and “keep your business behind closed doors,” Griner wrote in her memoir.

“Kim Mulkey is an amazing coach; the reason I went to Baylor is because of her,” says Kelli Griffin, who played for Mulkey from 2007 to 2010. But, Griffin says, “She made my life hell” by drawing attention to Griffin’s clothes and issuing a suspension that ultimately ended the player’s career. And she believes it started after Mulkey found out she was gay.

Mulkey’s attorneys, in letters to The Post, denied that Mulkey treated gay players “more harshly or differently.” They provided an affidavit from former Baylor player Morghan Medlock, who said that she was in a relationship with Griffin and that she never witnessed Mulkey mistreat Griffin or other gay athletes. Former Baylor and LSU player Alexis Morris put it more bluntly to ESPN: “Coach Mulkey is not homophobic.”

Mulkey, in a 2013 interview with OutSports , insisted that she didn’t care about players’ sexuality and wouldn’t ask them about it.

“I don’t think it’s anybody’s business,” she said then. “Whoever you are. I don’t care to know that.”

Her conflicts with star players are over other issues too, though, and they have continued at LSU, even as players’ leverage and celebrity swell. She benched Reese for four games this season for reasons the coach refused to explain, weeks after appearing to call out Reese for a poor shooting performance. (Reese did not respond to messages from The Post seeking comment.) Mulkey told a supporter last year that Reese had been left off an awards list because of her GPA, according to email obtained via public records request by The Post. In another email, Mulkey complained that Reese was one of several players who “stay on that social media crap.”

Mulkey is many things, among them a 5-foot-4 hoops whisperer, an exceptional teacher , a coach willing to dive deeply into players’ emotions to push them past their preconceived limits. She is also one of college basketball’s most colorful personalities, viewed by some as an almost cartoonishly ornery supervillain. Regardless, as the women’s game finally takes center stage, she is an essential part of the show. In last year’s national championship game, she wore a sequined, technicolor ensemble and unfurled the best game plan of her life.

LSU forced Iowa star Caitlin Clark to battle for every shot, every touch, every step. The Tigers shut off access to the lane, allowing Clark to be predictably lethal from long range but otherwise one-dimensional, enough for LSU’s blowout win and one achievement that eluded even Shaq and “Pistol Pete”: a national title.

It was Mulkey’s seventh as a player or coach, and even in victory she was sarcastic and prickly.

“Coaches are hollering, ‘Get off the court,’ ” Mulkey snapped after winning the 2023 tournament, her fourth title as a head coach. “And I said: ‘Don’t tell me what to do; I’m fixing to win another championship.’ ”

Coaches don’t win 723 games, reach five Final Fours and hang around this long by being cuddly. Mulkey isn’t your grandmother or your mascot, and while everyone else is fighting for women’s basketball, she’s fighting against something because it’s the fight that drives her. Even if you played for her, won for her, loved her.

“I’ll just say she doesn’t care about winning the popularity contest among coaches,” longtime Texas A&M coach Gary Blair says. “She wouldn’t want to.”

So, yes, all of this — the sold-out arenas, television ratings, attention — is well and good. A fire is finally rising in the women’s game.

Where have you been?

Because Mulkey is the fire, and she has been burning for 40 years, too busy laying waste to everything and everyone in her path to be impressed by Clark, Shaq or anyone else trying to soak in this storybook moment.

BACK WHEN THE FOOTAGE was grainy, if it existed at all, she was poetry in pigtails: whirling passes behind her back, between her legs, past opponents. Sonja Hogg knew Louisiana Tech would be getting speed and grit when she recruited Mulkey, but was it too much to hope for more?

“I thought maybe she’d grow a little bit,” Hogg says now.

No such luck, but in the early 1980s, women’s basketball teams took what they could get. There was no money for private jets or elaborate team dinners, so the Lady Techsters dined on fast food on bus rides to Texas and Oklahoma. And not even the nice bus. That one was reserved for the men’s team, leaving only the “Blue Goose,” such a rattletrap that the travel itinerary built in extra time for breakdowns.

Home games were social affairs, and everyone wanted to see the newest member of Hogg’s quintet. A point guard raining down 30 shots per game, as Clark sometimes does, would have been unseemly anywhere in 1982. But at Louisiana Tech, coaches just wouldn’t have allowed it. Mulkey’s job was to run the offense, distribute the ball, do things precisely Hogg’s way.

The right way.

Hogg (rhymes with “rogue”) was the visionary, the strategist, the program’s good cop. Assistant coach Leon Barmore was the hard-ass. Fit in, do right or go see the enforcer for a profanity-laced rant or a date with the arena stairs.

“Back in the day,” former Louisiana Tech player Mickie DeMoss says, “they didn’t have to explain why. You get there, or you’re going to run.”

Louisianans drove hours to watch the Lady Techsters, so named because the men’s mascot was the Bulldogs and, as Hogg once pointed out, “a lady dog is a bitch.” Hogg required her players to be ladylike, and little girls wore their hair braided like Mulkey’s as they squeezed into Memorial Gym. The arena could fit 5,200, but Hogg says if she greased the Ruston fire marshal with tickets, he would allow in a thousand more.

Because Hogg put on a show . Tennessee’s Pat Summitt wore pantsuits. Ohio State’s Tara VanDerveer donned sweaters. Cheyney’s C. Vivian Stringer occasionally wore a skirt. Hogg drove a white Cadillac, wore beaver skin or mink, styled her platinum hair into a towering meringue.

“I couldn’t be dragging around in some sweatsuit,” she says now. “I mean, I wore warmups during practice and tennis shoes and whatever, but gah -lee , you don’t do that on the sideline .”

Louisiana Tech smoked Tennessee in the 1982 Final Four , stirring whispers that Summitt was a fine coach but a choker in big games, and met Cheyney in the final. Hogg directed traffic in a dusty rose and light pink blouse, shell necklace and wool crepe pants as Stringer’s press initially put Louisiana Tech in a sleeper hold.

But Mulkey had the speed to break the press, crash the lane, lay it in. The smarts to recognize when a defender dropped into a zone before pulling up to drain one from deep. Hogg and Barmore freed Mulkey up to riff because she had the conditioning to let her ignore fatigue and continue punishing her opponents, choking them out, stomping the court and beaming as time expired. Tech won by 14, and Mulkey got hooked on winning NCAA championships after one taste.

“She looked like a cheerleader jumping,” Hogg recalls of Mulkey, who went 130-6 as a college player and reached the Final Four every year. “She wants perfection. That’s what she was always seeking.”

AS SOON AS LES MULKEY got out of the Marine Corps in 1963, he started clearing: strawberry vines, bushes, weeds and juvenile pines, even dairy cows from the playing surfaces he had been imagining for six years.

His father had given his two sons 25 acres to share off a highway in Tangipahoa Parish. Les’s younger brother planned to raise horses on his half. Les liked competition, one way to channel his overflowing energy, and if all went right, he would soon be hosting weekend softball tournaments and pickup basketball games.

Les signed Kim up to play youth baseball, then took the league to court when it refused to admit a girl, she later wrote. She made all-stars the next year. He took his daughters with him to play weeknight hoops, and if his team was a man down, he would draft Kim.

“ Her ?” an opponent once asked.

“You scared?” Les said.

A lifelong LSU fan, he hoped Kim would play college basketball for the Ben-Gals, as they were initially known. But when she picked Tech, he made the four-hour trip to Ruston for home games, slipping into the gym and fading into the crowd to watch his little girl.

“He was so proud of me,” Kim wrote, “and I was so proud that he was my dad.”

Some nights, though, there were no games. Les and Dru, Kim’s mom, went dancing sometimes. Other nights he would go drinking as he used to in the Corps, he says, ending up in another woman’s bed. With his daughters in college, Les left Dru and married another woman. She wasn’t much older than Tammy and Kim.

In 1987, the WNBA was a decade away. After playing at Tech, Mulkey moved down the bench as an assistant coach. And a few years after that, she wrote, her boyfriend and a colleague in the athletic department, Randy Robertson, presented her a jack-in-the-box with an engagement ring inside. He was popular and gregarious. She hated parties and crowds, had never taken a sip of alcohol. She said yes anyway, planning to toast with 7 Up at the wedding.

Les packed his tuxedo and made the familiar drive to Ruston. His new wife could attend, Kim advised, but only if she sat in the rear, away from the family. The way Kim saw it, sister Tammy says, her dad hadn’t just walked out on his family. He had quit on the people who depended on him, the worst thing a person can do.

Through her attorneys, Mulkey derided The Post for contacting family members, saying they did not “relate in any way to her career.” But Mulkey herself wrote about her dad’s infidelity and their estrangement in her 2007 autobiography, “Won’t Back Down.”

“His unfaithfulness to my mother devastated our entire family,” she wrote.

Still, Les figured, if he talked to her in person, Kim would come to her senses. But she wouldn’t budge. Neither would Les. His daughter walked down the aisle alone.

They haven’t spoken since.

CAN YOU IMAGINE KIM MULKEY begging? For anything? She says it happened in 2000, when she dropped to her knees before Louisiana Tech President Daniel Reneau.

Hogg was gone, but Barmore and Mulkey kept the Techsters machine humming: seven more Final Fours and the 1988 championship. Barmore was an unrelenting competitor, and by the end of the 1999-2000 season, he and Mulkey were butting heads more often. After he called her out in front of the team, she later wrote, Mulkey reached a breaking point. She requested a transfer to a different department as she searched for a new coaching job, and Barmore apologized and stepped down. He lobbied for Mulkey to get a shot.

Reneau was willing to consider it, but he offered only a three-year contract. Mulkey, then 37, wanted five. When they met in the president’s office, Mulkey wrote: “I got out of my chair, onto my knees, and begged that man for a five-year contract. Tears were flying everywhere.” (Reneau did not return calls and messages seeking comment.)

Few things are more important to Mulkey than loyalty, codified during the 1984 Olympics . Mulkey had broken her foot and expected to be sent home, but Summitt, the Tennessee legend, declared that Mulkey had earned her spot. Team USA won the gold medal, and Mulkey forever saw Summitt as a mentor and friend.

Reneau showed no such commitment.

“I just wanted Dan Reneau to say, ‘Hey, Kim, you know we’ll take care of you, you’re one of us,’ ” Mulkey wrote. “But the man was so cold.”

She took the job at Baylor, replacing Hogg, of all people. Mulkey said later that she never spoke to Reneau again.

AT BAYLOR’S FIRST CONDITIONING SESSION under its new coach, in the spring of 2000, forward Danielle Crockrom says, Mulkey approached and collected a fistful of the exhausted player’s jersey.

“Push past this point,” she says Mulkey told her, “and you’ll be an all-American.”

But team captain? Not now, maybe not ever, Crockrom recalls being told. Because, according to Crockrom’s telling, Mulkey knew the player had gotten burned out the previous season and stepped away for two weeks. She had quit. On her teammates, her coaches, herself. Then she had gone to Baylor’s athletic director to complain about Hogg and the team’s direction, Crockrom says now, leading to the staff shake-up.

Mulkey blew the whistle, ordering more sprints, reminding everyone, Crockrom says, that she had set the wheels of agony in motion by complaining.

“Be careful what you ask for,” Crockrom says. She wouldn’t fully understand the purpose until later. “This is what you need to be disrupted, to pull out the potential in you. I had potential in me that I hadn’t even begun to scratch.”

That season, Baylor won 21 games and reached the NCAA tournament for the first time. Crockrom was indeed named an all-American. The Bears lost in the first round, though, and Mulkey told players this was only the beginning. “We might have raised the bar too early,” Mulkey said with a chuckle after the loss.

There was more work to do, even if that meant Mulkey’s process wasn’t for everyone.

“The weeding-out process,” Crockrom says.

Mulkey handed out playbooks, Crockrom says, then yanked them away. She made the team run her plays again and again until calls resulted in a Pavlovian, muscle-memory response. Crockrom says Mulkey made post players keep pace with guards, using structured failure to push beyond physical and emotional barriers. She scheduled more and more conditioning sessions, one starting earlier than the last.

Because know who else was up and grinding? VanDerveer at Stanford. Geno Auriemma at Connecticut. Summitt at Tennessee. All were building perennial championship contenders as the women’s game competed for eyeballs on the increasingly crowded sports landscape. Lisa Leslie could dunk; Candace Parker could throw down against boys; Sue Bird and Diana Taurasi anchored a U-Conn. team that couldn’t lose.

Mulkey paid special attention to Summitt, whom coaching peers praised not just for doing things the proverbial right way but her way, establishing a standard and a recruiting pipeline and a juggernaut, all while raising a son.

Back when she was still an assistant, Mulkey had leaned on Summitt when she and Randy learned, in 1991, they were expecting a baby girl. She was running Louisiana Tech’s summer camp at the time, plus overseeing academics and acting as recruiting coordinator. She was “in a depression,” she would tell the Dallas Morning News in 2012 , and thought it would be impossible to add a daughter to the mix, especially when —

Summitt interjected.

You can , she told her. It’s possible to be a great coach and a great mother .

Mulkey believed Summitt, always her North Star, and took Makenzie on a recruiting trip when she was two weeks old. She breastfed Kramer, the couple’s infant son, before and after practices and games. Mulkey wrote that, by the time they moved to Waco, the kids had learned to give their mom space, especially after losses, and stop asking why she cussed so much.

She leaned into the things that made her at Louisiana Tech because those things won. Only she sometimes played the roles of Hogg and Barmore: approachable emissary while handing out stuffed bears at Waco bingo halls and nursing homes, a former Baylor colleague says, and ruthless taskmaster who, according to multiple former players, might single out anyone who seemed distracted or was having a tough day.

“If you’re having a hard time with something or you’re not performing at the level that she would like you to be, then get ready,” says Emily Niemann, a swing player who joined the team in 2003. “Because there’s no holding back.”

Niemann’s vertical jump was a mere 13 inches, and she says Mulkey brought it up constantly, instructing the team not to throw Niemann a lob pass because she wouldn’t catch it. Sometimes Mulkey’s comments felt like a joke, Niemann says; other times she felt humiliated.

In the 2004 NCAA tournament, fourth-seeded Baylor ran into Tennessee in the Sweet 16. The teams were tied as time expired, but officials huddled and determined that Baylor’s Jessika Stratton had fouled Tasha Butts. After Butts made two free throws, Summitt’s team advanced.

Mulkey never mentioned the loss again. The team nonetheless remembered, and the next season, Baylor crushed NCAA tournament opponents by an average of 15 points. Niemann made five three-pointers in a title-game beatdown of Michigan State.

“She’s so locked in and intense that it trickles down to everybody,” Niemann says. “And when you have a whole team of people where every loose ball matters, every deflection matters, every block-out, every trip down the floor — everything matters.

“It’s emotionally draining. On the other hand, it gets results.”

THREE MONTHS LATER, Niemann says, Mulkey summoned her to the coach’s office. The player had been seen around Waco with a woman, and people had begun murmuring about her sexuality.

“It’s not a good look,” Niemann says Mulkey told her. Baylor is the world’s largest Baptist university, and its policy still prohibits premarital sex and defines marriage as between a man and woman. Mulkey advised Niemann to be careful because the program would be watching.

For months, Niemann had struggled with questions about her identity, slowly coming to grips with being queer, she says. The product of a conservative home in Houston, a graduate of a Christian school and now a player at Baylor, she found many of her feelings were in conflict with her surroundings.

“I can’t talk to anyone,” she says now. “I couldn’t find a way to make things feel right.”

She was thinking of transferring, Niemann says, and met with Mulkey and her parents about it. Mulkey was flabbergasted, the coach wrote in her memoir, adding that among Niemann’s reasons for wanting to leave Baylor was that Mulkey was sometimes too hard on players.

“This is how I do what I do,” Niemann recalls the coach saying. “And if you can’t take it, maybe you should leave.”

Niemann left. Later, she wrote that she “did not leave Baylor because coach Mulkey is homophobic.” The coach, Niemann wrote, was only expressing opinions that were the “dominant belief system” on campus.

Mulkey wrote about Niemann in her memoir, suggesting that “unhappiness comes from within one’s soul” and that Niemann’s experience was an isolated case.

Other players point out that hard coaching is a key driver of Mulkey’s success, even as her peers go softer amid the shifting power dynamics of college sports. For Mulkey, players say, that often extends to comments about players’ hairstyles, tattoos and makeup.

“She hates my different hair colors,” former Bears guard DiDi Richards says. “ ‘Why is your hair purple?’ ‘Are you going to wear them two ponytails?’ If you would change the color, she’d go, ‘You and these damn colors.’ ” The comments came from a place of affection, Richards believes. They could get personal, too, though Richards says they show how Mulkey pushes players, physically and emotionally, in pursuit of wins.

Mulkey’s attorneys described the comments as “good-natured banter, as often happens on and around the court.”

A few months after Baylor’s first championship, Mulkey’s husband told her he felt neglected. They attended couples counseling, Mulkey would write, and she offered to leave coaching. Robertson nonetheless wanted to end their marriage. “I told Randy … that he better be sure,” Mulkey wrote, “because there was no turning back.” (Robertson did not respond to an email.)

By this point, those in Mulkey’s orbit had learned that disloyalty could result in harsh consequences. Les Mulkey sent notes to his daughter, pleading for reconciliation, but Mulkey wrote that she returned them unread. After Reneau, the former Louisiana Tech president, sent Mulkey a message congratulating her on the national championship, Mulkey would say later, it sat unopened on her desk for years.

“Talk to that man?” she told the Dallas Morning News in 2012. “That’s not who I am.”

AT BAYLOR, MULKEY IMPORTED a layer of trust by surrounding herself with past allies: Barmore, who came out of retirement to be an assistant coach; a longtime Louisiana Tech booster to oversee Baylor’s budget and travel; and a former Techsters team manager to handle recruiting.

Everything Mulkey did, at least as it related to basketball, worked: two Sweet 16s in five years and, in 2010, another Final Four. Texas kids dreamed of wearing the green and gold, and when Kelli Griffin was in seventh grade, she wrote a paper about someday leaving Houston to play for Kim Mulkey.

Griffin had come out in high school, but though she and Mulkey never explicitly discussed her sexuality while she was being recruited, Griffin says now that it was “obvious” and that she assumed Mulkey knew. She promised Griffin’s mother, Madine, that Baylor was a “family” and that she would protect Kelli.

Not long after Griffin arrived on campus, she says, Mulkey began asking why she dressed like a boy: baggy jeans, basketball shorts, sweats. A lady, Griffin says the coach told her, wears a dress. “Okay, this lady might not like gay people,” Griffin recalls thinking.

She considered transferring, but in 2008, one of Griffin’s friends and former AAU teammates committed to Baylor. Brittney Griner was a 6-foot-8 phenom and YouTube dunking sensation who, not long after reporting to campus, grabbed a rebound, glided the length of the court with the ball, then dunked it.

“Dang, Kim,” Barmore said in an interview. “I think we’ve got something here.”

Griner is gay, but she didn’t come out publicly until 2013, after her final game at Baylor. Still, whenever Mulkey sensed Griner was distracted or stressed, Mulkey blamed “girlfriend problems,” Griner later wrote, even if Griner wasn’t dating anyone. “She sounded like she was speaking a foreign language,” Griner wrote.

“Maybe she would have understood me better,” Griner wrote, “if I had shared more with her, but there was always a little bit of a disconnect with us, because I never really knew if Kim fully accepted me for who I am.”

Mulkey also called out players if they gained weight, instructing the team’s strength coach to conduct weigh-ins in front of the team, according to Griffin and another player. Players weren’t to bring non-basketball matters to Mulkey, they say, encouraged to confide in assistant coaches instead. And Niemann and multiple other former players say shame was a frequent tool in Mulkey’s coaching arsenal, whether during practice drills or in addresses to the team. Some of these former players spoke on the condition of anonymity because of fears of retaliation in the close-knit women’s basketball community.

Mulkey’s attorneys said the former players’ allegations were too vague to respond to.

Mulkey didn’t like the stars tattooed on Griner’s shoulders because, the player later wrote, they sent the “wrong message.” Griner pacified her coach by wearing a T-shirt under her jersey.

“It seemed like all she cared about was the image of the program as seen through the eyes of a very specific segment of the population,” Griner wrote. “Just once, I wanted her to stop worrying about what everyone else thought and stand by my side.”

In 2010, Griffin was the second-ranked Bears’ starting point guard. One night, Griffin says, an ex-girlfriend and Bears teammate showed up at Griffin’s home, and a fight broke out.

Griffin says she called Mulkey to report the incident, and the next morning, Mulkey announced that Griffin would be suspended indefinitely. The teammate, whom Griffin wouldn’t identify to The Post because, she said, the teammate had not come out as gay, wasn’t punished, according to Griffin. In a separate interview, Griffin’s mom, Madine, also recalled that the other player wasn’t suspended.

Griffin says she confronted Mulkey to ask why she was being penalized and that Mulkey told her she was owed no explanation.

“I thought I did everything I was supposed to,” she says.

After The Post asked Mulkey’s representatives about these events, they provided a statement from the former player, Morghan Medlock, who was in a relationship with Griffin at the time. Medlock claimed Griffin was actually suspended for using marijuana.

In a phone interview the next day, Medlock reiterated that Mulkey “never knew” there had been an altercation between Griffin and Medlock. Griffin just stopped coming to practice, Medlock said. Medlock said she did not remember how she learned the reason Griffin was suspended.

Medlock said she decided to give the statement after receiving a call this week from an individual who falsely claimed Griffin had identified Medlock to The Post.

“If my name never came up, I wouldn’t be on the phone with you right now,” she said. Medlock would not reveal who had contacted her and refused to say when she had last spoken with Mulkey.

“What difference does it make?” she said. “How I got the information, who I got it from, where I got it, that doesn’t matter.”

She then ended the call.

Griffin maintains that she was not suspended for drugs and that she didn’t use marijuana in college. The Baylor women’s basketball spokeswoman from 2010, who’s now retired, told The Post in a text message Wednesday that she was “not privy” to the reason for Griffin’s suspension. Baylor’s current spokesman declined to comment on this and other elements of this article.

Griffin says she told assistant coach Damion McKinney that she intended to transfer because, Griffin says, “I couldn’t play for Kim anymore.” (McKinney did not respond to messages seeking comment.)

But transferring wouldn’t be easy. Long before the NCAA, in 2021, introduced the transfer portal, allowing players to come and go among schools without penalty, players generally needed to be released by one school before pursuing a transfer to another.

Four days after appearing in an exhibition game, the Baylor program released a statement to the media. It didn’t say Griffin intended to transfer.

It said she “quit.”

YEARS PASSED, AND WITH KIM and Tammy grown and gone and their dad starting over, pine seedlings took root on the softball fields. The walls of the pool collapsed and got filled in. The basketball goal was cut down and hauled away. Trash collected on the concrete slab, once the site of late-night competitions; cans rusted; and discarded shoes became waterlogged, becoming moldy and deformed. Someone spray-painted KEEP OUT on a sheet of corrugated metal that replaced a wall, wood beams rotted, pipes sunk into the earth.

The pines matured and swallowed the fields, grass grew, and weeds sprouted, flowered and spread. After nearly four decades, the overgrowth had narrowed the property’s walking paths and obscured the driveway.

The woods had retaken their land, and any evidence that a family had ever been here was gone.

IN SPRING 2016, MULKEY’S SON , who’s now 29, convinced her it was time to go see Summitt . The legendary Tennessee coach, perhaps Mulkey’s dearest friend in coaching, had been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease five years earlier.

Summitt was in a senior living facility in Knoxville, and Mulkey knew what visiting her meant. Kim kept saying “I love ya,” she would tell reporters later, and Pat kept saying it back. Four weeks later, Summitt was gone.

This was the same year that Baylor fired football coach Art Briles after a damning investigation of the football program’s coverup of at least 17 acts of sexual or domestic assault by 19 players. Mulkey went on the attack. She snapped at reporters who brought up the scandal, saying she was “tired of hearing” about it, then turned a postgame speech after her 500th career win into a pulpit.

“If somebody is around you and they ever say, ‘I will never send my daughter to Baylor,’ you knock them right in the face,” she said. Mulkey later apologized.

The school’s leaders, many of whom had been brought in to restore the school’s reputation, found themselves dealing with new headaches involving Mulkey. Even before Baylor announced plans to replace the old Ferrell Center with a new arena, Mulkey told peers that she expected the court to be named for her.

Baylor declined The Post’s requests to interview Athletic Director Mack Rhoades and school president Linda Livingstone.

Mulkey distanced herself further from players whose time at Baylor had ended abruptly or unexpectedly. When Niemann returned to campus for a celebration of Baylor’s 2005 championship, it was an important step in her process of healing, she says.

“I wanted to go back to the place,” Niemann says, “and step back into that gym and re-engage with that community and not have my head held down in shame. That’s what I needed to do: This is me; this is who I am. I did some awesome things, I made some poor decisions, and this is still a part of my life.”

Niemann found Mulkey and approached her. Niemann says she thanked her former coach for the impact she had made on her life and said she was sorry for the way things ended.

Niemann said Mulkey said nothing and walked away.

“There was just nothing there,” she says. “There was no warmth. There was no nothing.”

Three months after Mulkey contracted the coronavirus in 2021, forcing the cancellation of a home game against U-Conn., she urged the NCAA to “dump” testing for the virus . A few weeks later, Mulkey approached Baylor administrators to let them know she had an offer from LSU. She planned to accept unless Baylor gave her a better deal.

In a decision that rocked the industry, the school made no counteroffer.

ONE MONDAY MORNING IN 2022 , LSU players arrived at the basketball facility and were greeted with an unusual directive: Turn off your phones and put them in the other room.

Mulkey went ballistic. Days earlier, two LSU players had gotten into a fight. Teammates got between them, but the two kept at it, with spit flying and glass thrown. The scene had unfolded in front of a group of visiting recruits.

“My regret in this life,” one of the people present says, “I didn’t record this meeting.”

That was impossible, though, because at Baylor and now at LSU, former players say, staffers sometimes mitigated the risk of Mulkey’s tirades being recorded by barring phones from the room. (Mulkey’s attorneys did not address this incident in their responses to The Post.)

It had been a tense year already. Earlier in 2022, Griner, now starring for the Phoenix Mercury, was detained at an airport in Russia , where, like many WNBA players, she supplemented her earnings by playing overseas. Officials claimed she had vape cartridges containing hashish oil in her luggage.

WNBA players wore Griner’s No. 42 during the All-Star Game, and Seattle Storm player Sue Bird pleaded for Griner to be released. NBA star Stephen Curry spoke out in support of Griner, and President Biden signed an executive order threatening sanctions on any government that wrongfully detained Americans.

It was as if everyone was discussing Griner’s plight. Everyone, that is, except Griner’s college coach.

“And you won’t,” Mulkey shot back at a reporter who said he hadn’t seen her comment on the situation.

Whatever the root of their beef, it had intensified enough that Mulkey would rarely say Griner’s name. She made an exception in June 2022, when Mulkey appeared on the “Tiger Rag” radio show.

“I pray for Brittney,” Mulkey said. “I want her home safely. I think there’s lots of people speaking out on her behalf, and those of us who don’t necessarily speak publicly about it certainly are praying for her.”

Still, former LSU players say, those within the program had learned to avoid mentioning Griner or interacting with social media posts that supported the detained player.

Even in the tightknit coaching community, a frequent discussion topic was Mulkey’s unwillingness to look beyond a grudge.

“I really was hoping that Kim would make a statement. Really hoping she would,” says DeMoss, the former Louisiana Tech player and longtime coach who adds that she considers Mulkey a friend. “You’ve got a kid that’s stuck in Russia; I mean, that’s bigger than any feud that y’all had. No one knew how long they were going to detain her over there.

“We were all hoping [Mulkey] could just rise above it for that moment. Just get her back home. But she didn’t.”

Through her attorneys, Mulkey rebutted any suggestion that she failed to support Griner.

In December 2022, after nearly a year in prison, Griner was released and returned to the United States in a prisoner exchange. The basketball community expressed relief and joy, and reactions — not all supportive, considering the exchange freed a notorious Russian arms dealer — poured out from both sides of the political aisle. Mulkey issued a brief statement to ESPN: “God is good. Prayers are powerful. Brittney is on the way home where she belongs. Our prayers remain with her and her family as they recover and heal together.”

Three months later, after Mulkey reached her fifth Final Four, a reporter asked whether Mulkey had spoken with Griner. She hadn’t. Four days later, Mulkey, in a pink- and gold-sequined jacket, cut down the net and held up a newspaper with Reese pictured and CHAMPS! in massive letters.

Even among some of Mulkey’s ex-players, the enthusiasm was muted.

“As a head coach, you’re responsible for so many people; you’re taking on a role that leaves a very lasting impression,” a former Baylor player says. “You might be able to win us a championship, but are people going to want to come back and see you?”

EVERY ONCE IN A WHILE , Les Mulkey climbs into his work truck, drives past the old property, makes his way 50 miles south and west to Baton Rouge. He hasn’t spoken with his older daughter in 37 years, but same as he used to, he can slip into a gym, fade into the crowd and watch his little girl.

“I love my babies,” he says. “I ain’t ashamed.”

Kim has her daddy’s eyes, the same skeptical eyebrows, the same pride. “They’re just alike,” younger daughter Tammy says. Tammy said in early March that she doesn’t speak to her sister, either. There was some disagreement five or six years ago, Tammy says, but she won’t say what caused it. She believes they will reconnect eventually. “I’m sure we will,” she says. “One day. I hope.”

Les has no such delusions. Isn’t it odd, he says, to love a child so much that you leave them be? It’s how Kim wants it, he says, but he prays every night that, tomorrow, she will want something new. He is 86 now and lives alone, in a dilapidated trailer way out past the pines. It’s where he retreats after his drives to Baton Rouge. He has dozens of pictures, newspaper cutouts, mementos from Kim’s basketball career. Tammy calls it a shrine.

It’s all he has left of her, and with many of Les’s friends dying recently, he thinks about what’s next. He was cocky, he says. Stubborn. A little too proud, he says, so when his time comes, Les figures it will be when he’s alone, surrounded by achievements but not people, wasting away like the things he once built.

LONG AFTER ANOTHER LSU WIN , Mulkey takes a photo with a woman in a wheelchair. Then she points at a crowd assembled beyond the tunnel, lamenting that she’s about to walk into that .

“Kim!” a young fan yells.

“You’ve got to say Coach Mulkey,” an adult corrects.

Mulkey heads that way, drawing cheers, and encourages patience. She will get to everyone, she promises. As the arena empties, the coach signs autographs, raises her eyebrows at the Kim Mulkey bobblehead the school gave out, poses for selfies not far from the banner LSU hung for last year’s championship.

As afternoon turns to evening in Baton Rouge, Mulkey is still signing and chatting with fans. She’s an icon and a winner, one of the best motivators and teachers any sport has seen. But Mulkey is right: Times are different. Long after Summitt’s Tennessee teams slept on gymnasium floors because her program couldn’t afford hotel rooms, Mulkey now makes $3.26 million per year, most in the women’s game. Meanwhile, Louisiana Tech, once a women’s basketball dynasty, hasn’t made the NCAA tournament in a dozen years. Baylor is no longer among the sport’s upper tier, another structure abandoned and left to wither.

Along the LSU baseline, families wait for Mulkey to reach them. When they’ve gotten whatever they’ve been waiting for, they head toward the steps and a row of glass doors. As they walk, fathers tell their kids that was Kim Mulkey they just met, the coach who won all those championships, told it like it is, did it all her way.

Reporters fold their tripods and unplug their microphones from press row. Athletics staffers head toward the Pete Maravich Assembly Center exits. The crowd thins, and workers use a leaf blower to remove trash from empty rows.

“Miss Kim!” a voice calls, and it echoes through the arena. Mulkey walks across the hardwood, sequins glinting and heels clicking, to snap another picture. Then, when they all have what they wanted, the last of the friends, families and groups leave together, beneath a banner marking Mulkey’s latest achievement, and the coach heads back toward the tunnel, off into the evening alone.

Molly Hensley-Clancy in Washington contributed to this report.

Money blog: What makes up the cost of a £6 pint - and how much is profit?

The cost of draught lager has gone up nearly 30% since January 2019, according to the Office for National Statistics. Read this and more in the Money blog, your place for personal finance news. Leave a comment on stories we've covered, or a question for our experts, in the form below.

Thursday 4 April 2024 08:35, UK

• British Savings Bonds announced in the budget go on sale - but experts aren't convinced
• What makes up the cost of a £6 pint - and how much is profit?
• How to make your money work harder while it's sat in your current account
• How much will your take-home pay increase this month with NI cut? Use our calculator
• 'Are they going to go around sniffing people?' Big Issue founder says government has 'lost the plot' over homelessness plan
• Eight big price hikes this week - and six boosts to Britons' pockets
• All the places kids can eat cheap or free this Easter

Ask a question or make a comment

Google is considering charging for premium AI-powered features, the Financial Times reports.

It would be the first time the tech giant put any core products behind a paywall, as it seeks to gain ground in the fast-moving AI space

The FT cited sources familiar with Google's plans as saying it could incorporate a generative AI-powered search engine in its subscription services, which already provide access to its new Gemini AI assistant in Gmail and Docs.

Google's traditional search engine would remain free of charge and ads would continue to appear alongside search results even for subscribers.

"We're not working on or considering an ad-free search experience. As we've done many times before, we'll continue to build new premium capabilities and services to enhance our subscription offerings across Google," the company told Reuters.

Google, which invented the foundational technology for today's AI boom, is locked in battle with two industry players that have captured the business world's attention - ChatGPT's creator OpenAI and its backer Microsoft.

Every Thursday we look at a different savings option, explain the pros and cons, and reveal the best deals on the market (see table below for that).  This week we're talking about the top interest-paying current accounts. Savings Champion founder Anna Bowes  writes...

From time to time there are plenty of incentives available to attempt to encourage people to switch their current accounts - but switching is not always necessary. There are also some current accounts that offer competitive interest rates, even if there's not a switching incentive. 

While not as prevalent as they have been in the recent past, interest-paying current accounts can offer some very competitive interest rates – especially bearing in mind that most current accounts offer no interest at all. In fact, according to the Bank of England, there is £253bn currently held in these non-interest bearing accounts.

These accounts are usually more complicated than a traditional savings account and there are a number of hoops to jump through and potential hazards to avoid, in order to get the returns on offer. 

Potential traps to look out for are: low maximum balances, introductory rates, monthly fees, a requirement to set up direct debits, a minimum amount to pay in each month and a minimum amount to maintain in the account.

All of these factors need to be taken into account when choosing an account and if you feel that you may fall foul of the rules, take a look at one of the alternatives that will suit your circumstances better. 

Setting up standing orders is an easy way to ensure you deposit and withdraw the qualifying amounts each month and can be effective in managing multiple current accounts. It may take a while to set it all up, but the rates on offer could make it worthwhile. It is also worth remembering that many of these accounts can be opened without having to switch your main current account. 

A final point to bear in mind is that some of these accounts give you access to exclusive savings accounts, which often pay competitive rates - especially true with regular savings accounts.

By Ollie Cooper, Money team

Many of us have noticed the price of pints creeping up in recent years. 

The cost of draught lager has gone up nearly 30% since January 2019, according to the Office for National Statistics.

The ONS says the cost of the average pint in Britain is £4.70 (it was £3.67 in January 2019), but many pubs frequently sell beers for over £5, £6 or even £7 in cities like London, Edinburgh and Brighton. 

The beer doesn't taste any different despite the increase in price - so where exactly does that £6-7 for a pint go? 

Sky News spoke with management at The Duke of Greenwich pub in Greenwich, London, for some insight. 

A pint of The Duke of Greenwich's eponymous lager costs £6 - but just 83p (about 13.8% of the cost to the consumer) is profit for the pub.

They pay the brewery £1.36 per pint and allow for 5% wastage - which people in the industry say is perhaps a little on the low side, given the number of top-ups and over-lively pints poured. 

Nearly 30%, or £1.76, of your £6 goes towards paying staff - with hospitality wages needing to rise given inflation, the national minimum wage and in order for pubs, restaurants and cafes to compete in the worsening inter-industry dogfight for employees. 

£1.16 may seem steep for rent and utilities per pint - but remember they aren't just paying for the building and the lights. They also need to wash your glass with very hot water using a dishwasher or glass cleaner, provide heating for punters, water for the bathrooms and electricity across the wider pub for bandits (aka trusty fruit machines), music and for that bloke at the bar to charge his phone. 

No one will need reminding that there's a cost of living crisis that affects pubs as much as everyone else. 

There's also beer gas that needs to be paid for. 

This goes some way towards explaining why pubs charge so much - they simply have to survive. 

More expensive means more profit, right?

As you go further up the scale, the trend continues. 

Despite a pint of Crush IPA by the Drop Project Brewery in Mitcham costing £1.80 more than the lager (£7.80), there's actually a decrease in the profit margin - from around 13.8% to around 12.7%. 

Less than £1 of that £7.80 is profit for the pub itself - and this is before we've accounted for extra expenses like refurbishments, cleaners, breakages, expired products, etc. 

While being aware of these facts may not make you wince any less when that card machine turns around, you will have a better idea of where that money is going. 

British Savings Bonds, which were announced in the budget, have gone on sale.

The bonds, issued by the Treasury-backed NS&I, offer a fixed rate for three years - and the rate has been revealed at 4.15%.

This has left experts feeling a little underwhelmed.

Savings Champion founder Anna Bowes gave us her view: "In essence, this is simply a re-issuance of the NS&I three-year Guaranteed Income and Guaranteed Growth bonds, rather than anything new or British.

"As was reported just after the budget and as is often the case with NS&I products, while the interest rate is not rock bottom it’s mid-table, so is likely to still be utilised, especially for those rolling over old bonds, and those with more than the FSCS limit of £85,000, because of course all cash held with NS&I is guaranteed by HM Treasury.

"NS&I is a trusted institution so will always be popular, but savers can earn quite a lot more if they shop around and perhaps choose a provider they are less familiar with."

The Guaranteed Growth Bond option is available at 4.15% and the Guaranteed Income Bond option has a rate of 4.07%.

Funds of between £500 and £1 million can be invested, with the money locked in for the duration of the three-year term.

The investments have 100%, Treasury-backed security, and are invested back into the country via government financing.

British Savings Bonds can be purchased online at nsandi.com .

Those looking for three-year deals can find a range of options with rates above 4.60% AER in the wider market, according to Moneyfactscompare.co.uk .

Bonds with shorter terms also offer higher rates, such as 5.25% AER for a one-year deal or 5.10% for a two-year deal.

Rachel Springall, a finance expert at Moneyfactscompare.co.uk , said: "As it stands, savers can get an account that pays more than 5% on either an easy access account or fixed-rate bond. As has been evident, fixed rates on savings accounts are coming down, so the deals that sit towards the top of the market will likely be in high demand."

Bim Afolami, economic secretary to the Treasury, said: "This is a new opportunity for UK savers to benefit from the three-year fixed-rate British Savings Bonds knowing that their money is fully protected by HM Treasury.

"The bonds will help to grow the savings culture in the UK while providing cost-effective financing for the government."

More than one in three UK water employees has reported being verbally abused at work, according to GMB Union.

A survey of almost 1,300 staff found industry workers have been physically assaulted and unsafe working alone, the Guardian reported.

The survey comes after backlash to news of sewage dumping practices.

The government has declined to launch a public inquiry into Thurrock council's bankruptcy , the Financial Times reports.

Residents had petitioned for an investigation into the Conservative-run Essex council.

But minister for local government Simon Hoare said a best value inspection report published last year was an effective way to look into the issue.

Co-op is reintroducing the  remote wine-tastings  first piloted during lockdown.

Winemakers will host sessions to members each month over Zoom following demand from customers, according to the supermarket.

Participants will receive advance notice of which wines will be the subject of the tastings.

Superdrug has axed the cost of VAT from its own-brand sun care range.

The retailer says the products should be deemed a healthcare essential and not a beauty treatment, and believes all sun protection should be exempt from the 20% levy.

The UK government is coming under increasing pressure to remove VAT on all sun care after a rise in calls for donations of such products, with some having to go without sun protection completely. 

The reduction is expected to save consumers around £1m.

Jamie Archer, own brand director at Superdrug, said: "Sun cream is currently classed as a cosmetic product and therefore carries the VAT associated with it, making it unaffordable for some people.

"We believe that everyone should have access to the products that protect their health and wellbeing and at an affordable price. 

"Therefore, we're proud to support our customers by removing 20% from our sun care range for a second year."

The cut means Solait Sun Cream SPF50 (200ml) costs £3.59 and the Solait Kid’s Roll-on Sun Cream SPF50+ (75ml) £2.79.

As many as 1,000 jobs could be cut by Royal Mail as the service plans to dramatically cut second-class letter deliveries.

In its submission to Ofcom's consultation on the future of the universal postal service, Royal Mail said its proposals would reduce all non first-class letter deliveries to save up to £300m a year.

Second-class letters would only be delivered three days a week - every other weekday.

However, the six-day-a-week service for first-class mail would be maintained - a row back on plans to axe Saturday deliveries.

The group said it didn't expect any compulsory redundancies and the roles would be reduced through natural staff turnover among its 130,000 employees.

They added that the proposals would not need a change in legislation, given it would still be delivering first-class post six days a week. It called for Ofcom to put the changes in place by April 2025.

Big Issue founder Lord Bird says the government has "lost the plot" over proposed legislation which critics say criminalises homelessness.

He called the Criminal Justice Bill a "waste of time" that fails to stop people living and dying on the streets of the UK.

The bill contains provisions to allow police to forcibly move on "nuisance" rough sleepers, with criteria including creating "excessive smell" or "looking like they are intending to sleep on the streets".

"How the hell are you going to enforce this?" said Lord Bird.

"You're going to get the old bill [police] or the local security going out their sniffing people? This is just a waste of time."

Lord Bird said it was "human rights abuse to let people live and die on our streets".

"When it's moved onto criminal justice issues, then you've lost the plot."

He pointed to "the evils" of no-fault evictions as one cause of homelessness.

"Today there will be somebody falling into homelessness because the government hasn't got off its rear and sorted out what it said it was going to do in 2019."

Lord Bill recalled his experience of living on the streets as a young man, including being urinated on and sexually propositioned by the public.

"Anybody who falls onto the streets in a very short period of time becomes so traumatised that they actually become dehumanised.

"There's nothing pretty about street life and therefore if people are behaving aggressively it's because really they need the A&E department."

Will the bill go through?

When the bill was introduced to parliament last year, Suella Braverman was still the home secretary.

She claimed at the time that rough sleeping was a "lifestyle choice".

The government has pledged to bring in the Criminal Justice Bill before the next election, although it is currently making its way through the House of Commons - with MPs proposing amendments, including dozens of Tories, that may come to a vote later.

Yesterday, minister Gillian Keegan was asked about the matter as Tory MPs seek to strip the provision to detain someone based on odour.

Asked if people should be arrested if they smell, Ms Keegan said: "Well, no, people should not be arrested just if they smell."

Royal Mail has reportedly launched an investigation into complaints that members of the public have been fined because their stamps were deemed counterfeit.

Affected customers have been told to pay £5 to collect post from Royal Mail.

The postal service switched to a barcoded stamp system last summer.

Questions have been raised over whether stamps are being wrongly identified as counterfeit after postmasters said the allegedly fake stamps were bought from Royal Mail directly.

Royal Mail has said the system is secure and any allegation that fake stamps were bought from its branches were "extremely serious".

Barcoded stamps became mandatory from 31 July 2023.

National insurance will be cut, for the second time this year, from 10% to 8% on employee earnings between £12,570 and £50,270 from Saturday.

The change, announced by the chancellor in his March budget, impacts around 27 million payroll employees across the UK.

The cut is worth almost £250 to someone earning £25,000 a year and almost £750 for those earning £50,000

Use our tool below for a rough guide to what tax changes can be expected for most people, as there are other variables not included which might affect how much tax you pay including being in receipt of the blind person's allowance or the marriage allowance. It also assumes you are not self-employed and are under pension age...

There are also national insurance cuts for the self-employed. This includes the scrapping of Class 2 contributions, as well as a reduction of the rate of Class 4 contributions from 9% to 6% for the £12,570 to £50,270 earnings bracket.

These will impact nearly two million self-employed people, according to the Treasury.

While many campaigners welcomed the national insurance announcement last month, they pointed out that the tax burden remains at record high levels for Britons - thanks in part to the threshold at which people start paying income tax being frozen, rather than rising with inflation.

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