Screenshot 2019-07-14 at 16.51.47.png

Eyjafjallajokull 2010 volcanic eruption case study

Tectonic Hazards Community Insight

Provided in partnership with

iceland volcano case study a level

size_566_x_340[566x340]-rid_62b48434-b0f2-4099-a59a-bf1e89045d41

IGCSE Geography Success Masterclass

Register now to be inspired and boost your grade!

Log in or sign up to manage your videos and for new video alerts Log in Sign up

Course links: GCSE • IGCSE • A-level • IA-level • IB Geography

This award-winning geography case study video resource reflects on the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in 2010 and looks ahead to potential volcanic eruptions in Iceland.

In this video, we cover:

- The causes and impacts of the eruption, with visits to some of the localities directly affected - Volcano monitoring and preparedness - The impacts associated with the future eruption of Katla - Positive impacts of the volcanic eruption on tourism in Iceland

This teaching resource uses narrative, incisive interviews of local people, stunning archive footage of the eruption itself and supportive maps and diagrams to show that, through detailed scientific knowledge and monitoring, the people in Iceland not only understand the threats posed by volcanic eruptions but also see the rich benefits of living in the ‘Land of Fire and Ice’.

Visit Discover the World Education to download the free teaching resources, which accompany this video: http://bit.ly/2xzJ8r5

  • 0 Shopping Cart

Internet Geography

Case Study – The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjnallajokull

Cambridge iGCSE Geography > The Natural Environment > Earthquakes and Volcanoes > Case Study – The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjnallajokull

Case Study – The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull

Background information.

Location: Eyjafjallajökull is located in southern Iceland.

Level of Development in Iceland: Iceland is a developed country with a strong economy. It has advanced infrastructure, healthcare, education, and a high standard of living.

Volcano Details: Eyjafjallajökull is a composite (stratovolcano) covered by an ice cap.  The name describes the volcano , with Eyja meaning island, fjalla meaning mountain, and jokull meaning glacier. You can find out how to pronounce Eyjafjallajokull on the BBC website .

Its eruption can cause significant ash plumes and glacial meltwater floods known as “jökulhlaups.”

What caused the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

Iceland is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a constructive plate boundary that divides the North American Plate from the Eurasian Plate. These two tectonic plates gradually drift apart because of the ridge push exerted along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. As they move away from each other, magma from beneath the Earth’s crust fills the magma chambers located below Eyjafjallajökull. The interconnection of several of these chambers has created a substantial reservoir of magma beneath the volcano. Eyjafjallajökull is positioned underneath a glacier, adding to its complex structure.

What were the primary effects of the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

  • Ash Cloud: The eruption created a massive ash cloud that turned day to night. The ash drifted over Europe.
  • Air Travel Disruption: Over 100,000 flights were cancelled, affecting around 10 million travellers.
  • Local Flooding: Melting glaciers caused flooding in the nearby areas.
  • Damage to Agriculture : Ash fall led to the loss of grazing areas and contaminated water supplies.
  • Property and roads: Homes and roads were damaged.

What were the secondary effects of the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

  • Economic Impact : The airline industry alone lost £130 million a day due to airspace closure, totalling an estimated $1.7 billion. The price of shares in major airlines dropped between 2.5-3.3% during the eruption. Other sectors, such as tourism and farming, were also significantly affected.
  • Environmental Impact : Long-term effects on soil and water quality were observed. Local water supplies were contaminated with fluoride.
  • Health Concerns: Respiratory issues were reported due to fine ash particles in the air.
  • Impacts on Kenya: The impact was felt as far afield as Kenya, where farmers laid off 5000 workers after flowers and vegetables rotted at airports. Kenya’s flower council says the country lost $1.3m daily in lost shipments to Europe.

What were the immediate responses to the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

  • Evacuation : Around 800 people were evacuated from the immediate vicinity.
  • Airspace Closure: European airspace was closed for several days.
  • Emergency Services: Immediate response from local authorities, firefighters, and rescue teams.

What were the long-term responses to the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

  • Monitoring and Research: Improved monitoring systems and research into ash cloud movement.
  • Economic Support: Financial assistance for affected farmers and businesses.
  • Regulations: Improved regulations for air travel during volcanic ash events.
  • Airspace: The European Union developed an integrated structure for air traffic management. As a result, nine Functional Airspace Blocks (FABs) will replace the existing 27 areas. This means following a volcanic eruption in the future, areas of air space may be closed, reducing the risk of closing all European air space.

What opportunities did the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull bring?

Despite the challenges brought about by the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, several benefits emerged from the event. One of the positive impacts was the environmental saving; the grounding of European flights during the eruption prevented the release of approximately 2.8 million tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, as the Environmental Transport Association noted.

Additionally, the disruption in air travel led to a boon for other modes of transportation. Eurostar, for instance, experienced a significant increase in passenger numbers. The company recorded nearly a third rise in travel, accommodating 50,000 extra passengers on trains during this period.

Furthermore, the volcanic ash from Eyjafjallajökull deposited dissolved iron into the North Atlantic Ocean. This led to a plankton bloom, enhancing biological productivity in the region.

In response to the eruption’s negative publicity, the Icelandic government initiated a campaign to bolster tourism. The “Inspired by Iceland” initiative was launched with the specific goal of showcasing the nation’s scenic beauty, the warmth of its people, and the reassurance that Iceland was ready to welcome visitors. Consequently, the campaign had a positive effect, as evidenced by a substantial increase in tourist numbers, as depicted in the graph below.

Foreign visitor arrivals to Iceland

Foreign visitor arrivals to Iceland

How does Iceland prepare for volcanic eruptions, and what was its impact?

Iceland has an effective monitoring system for its active volcanoes, with seismic stations and other instruments. There is close cooperation between meteorological, geological, and civil protection authorities. Public education and emergency planning are also vital to Iceland’s preparation strategy.

Iceland’s preparedness and rapid response, such as evacuating the area close to the volcano, mitigated the local impact of the eruption. However, the unprecedented disruption to air travel highlighted the need for better international coordination and understanding of volcanic ash’s effects on aviation.

The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010 is a crucial example of how a volcanic event can have local and global impacts. The incident underscored the importance of preparedness, monitoring, and international cooperation in minimizing the effects of such natural disasters. It also highlighted the interconnectedness of our modern world and how a geological event in one country can have far-reaching consequences.

Location and Eruption Details

Eyjafjallajökull erupted in 2010 in southern Iceland; it’s a stratovolcano covered by an ice cap. The eruption was caused by the North American Plate drifting from the Eurasian Plate along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, creating a magma reservoir beneath the volcano.

Primary Effects

The eruption led to a massive ash cloud, air travel disruption with over 100,000 flights cancelled, local flooding from melting glaciers, and damage to agriculture , homes, and roads.

Secondary Effects

Economic loss reached an estimated $1.7 billion in the airline industry, long-term environmental impacts, health concerns from ash particles, and far-reaching effects on other countries like Kenya.

Immediate Responses

Approximately 800 people were evacuated; European airspace was closed for several days; emergency services responded quickly.

Long-Term Responses and Opportunities

Improved monitoring, regulations, and economic support were implemented; benefits included reduced CO2 emissions, increased passenger numbers in trains like Eurostar, enhanced biological productivity in the North Atlantic, and a successful Icelandic tourism campaign.

Preparedness and Impact

Iceland’s effective monitoring, public education, and emergency planning mitigated the local impact but emphasized the need for international coordination and understanding of volcanic ash’s effects on aviation. The eruption illustrated the interconnectedness of modern society and the far-reaching consequences of geological events.

Check Your Knowledge

Coming soon

Test Yourself

The natural environment, share this:.

  • Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
  • Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
  • Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window)
  • Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)
  • Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window)
  • Click to print (Opens in new window)

Please Support Internet Geography

If you've found the resources on this site useful please consider making a secure donation via PayPal to support the development of the site. The site is self-funded and your support is really appreciated.

Search Internet Geography

Top posts and pages.

Home

Latest Blog Entries

Britains Most Desirable Towns

Pin It on Pinterest

  • Click to share
  • Print Friendly

iceland volcano case study a level

Skip to content

Get Revising

Join get revising, already a member, aqa geography - eyjafjallajokull case study.

  • Created by: Elliemaybl
  • Created on: 30-01-20 20:18

C ASE STUDY: EYJAFJALLAJOKULL ERUPTION, ICELAND. 

  • The volcano is on the island of Iceland, which is part of Europe and situated immediately South of the Artic circle. 
  • Located on the North American plate (moving west)
  • Move apart between 2-5cm per year.
  • The famous mid atlantic ridge runs through the island. 
  • South east to Reykjavik (Iceland's capital)
  • 15th April, 2010.
  • The caldera at the top of the volcano was 2.5km wide.
  • The volcano is nearly 2,000m tall.
  • The volcano is sub-glacial.
  • Began to erupt on the 20th March, though main eruption was the 19th April.
  • It was a fissure eruption, lava flow more dominant in the west.
  • An ash plume, 11,000m into the air resulted from eruption.
  • Ash was distributed by high velocity jet streams above Iceland.
  • Iceland is located on …
  • Case studies

No comments have yet been made

Similar Geography resources:

Revision Notes A2 AQA Geography Tectonics 0.0 / 5

AQA A level Geography 4.0 / 5 based on 9 ratings

AQA Geography - Population change 0.0 / 5

AQA Geography - Nepal Case study 5.0 / 5 based on 1 rating

AQA Geography - Alaska Case study 1.0 / 5 based on 1 rating

AQA A2 Geography - TNCs 0.0 / 5

AQA Geography Coasts Revision ON EVERYTHING 5.0 / 5 based on 1 rating Teacher recommended

Geography aqa A2 ecosystems 0.0 / 5

AQA A2 GEOGRAPHY: ECOSYSTEMS 4.5 / 5 based on 14 ratings

AQA A2 Geography - World Cities 0.0 / 5

Related discussions on The Student Room

  • Revising Geogrpahy »
  • GCSE Geography Study Group 2023-2024 »
  • good ways to remember geography case studies »
  • GCSE Geography Study Group 2022-2023 »
  • How To Revise AQA A Level Geography. »
  • AQA Case Studies help »
  • A-level Geography Study Group 2023-2024 »
  • should you draw sketches, maps or diagrams - geography exams »
  • gcse geography revision »

iceland volcano case study a level

Resources you can trust

Eyjafjallajokull: A geography case study

Eyjafjallajokull: A geography case study

A free 15-minute video from Discover the World Education on the causes and impacts of the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland, in 2010. The video also considers volcano monitoring and preparedness, and the potential impacts of the future eruption of nearby Katla.

It is suitable for key stages 3–5 and serves as excellent support for the study of tectonic hazards and their associated risks.

The video is available here:

Eyjafjallajokull Case Study from DiscovertheWorldEducation on Vimeo .

Accompanying worksheets, with answers, can be downloaded in the zipped folder.  

The video covers:

  • the causes and impacts of the eruption, with visits to some of the localities directly affected by the disaster
  • volcano monitoring and preparedness
  • the impacts associated with the future eruption of Katla
  • the positive impacts of the volcanic eruption on tourism in Iceland.

It shows how detailed scientific knowledge and monitoring allow people in Iceland not only to understand the threats posed by volcanic eruptions but also to see the benefits of living in the ‘Land of Fire and Ice’.

This short film combines narrative with:

  • interviews with local experts (including geology writer and broadcaster Ari Trausti)
  • footage of the 2010 eruption
  • supporting maps and diagrams.

Eyjafjallajokull: A geography case study received the Highly Commended Award at the Scottish Association of Geography Teachers Conference and the Silver Award at the Geographical Association Awards.

All reviews

Resources you might like.

  • International
  • Schools directory
  • Resources Jobs Schools directory News Search

Geography A level Iceland volcanic eruption A3 case study poster (Eyjafjallajokull )

Geography A level Iceland volcanic eruption A3 case study poster (Eyjafjallajokull )

Subject: Geography

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Assessment and revision

Hannah's Shop

Last updated

6 January 2021

  • Share through email
  • Share through twitter
  • Share through linkedin
  • Share through facebook
  • Share through pinterest

pdf, 295.41 KB

For the topic on natural hazards

I created this poster and achieved an A* in my Geography A level, including the highest mark nationally for the AQA physical geography paper in 2018.

Message me if you have any questions!

Tes paid licence How can I reuse this?

Your rating is required to reflect your happiness.

It's good to leave some feedback.

Something went wrong, please try again later.

This resource hasn't been reviewed yet

To ensure quality for our reviews, only customers who have purchased this resource can review it

Report this resource to let us know if it violates our terms and conditions. Our customer service team will review your report and will be in touch.

Not quite what you were looking for? Search by keyword to find the right resource:

Volcano case studies

Volcano case studies You should make sure you are familiar with 2 case studies: Either: Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of Congo – Poor Country or Montserrat, Caribbean – Poor Country AND Either: Mount St. Helens, USA – Rich Country or Iceland – Rich Country

Key terms: Primary effects: the immediate effects of the eruption, caused directly by it Secondary effects: the after-effects that occur as an indirect effect of the eruption on a longer timescale Immediate responses: how people react as the disaster happens and in the immediate aftermath Long-term responses: later reactions that occur in the weeks, months and years after the event Nyiragongo Picture The video below contains more information on the primary and secondary effects of a volcano

On 17th January 2002 Nyiragongo volcano in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) was disturbed by the movement of plates along the East African Rift Valley. This led to lava spilling southwards in three streams.

The primary effects – The speed of the lava reached 60kph which is especially fast. The lava flowed across the runway at Goma airport and through the town splitting it in half. The lava destroyed many homes as well as roads and water pipes, set off explosions in fuel stores and powerplants and killed 45 people

The secondary effects – Half a million people fled from Goma into neighbouring Rwanda to escape the lava. They spent the nights sleeping on the streets of Gisenyi. Here, there was no shelter, electricity or clean water as the area could not cope with the influx. Diseases such as cholera were a real risk. People were frightened of going back. However, looting was a problem in Goma and many residents returned within a week in hope of receiving aid.

Responses – In the aftermath of the eruption, water had to be supplied in tankers. Aid agencies, including Christian Aid and Oxfam, were involved in the distribution of food, medicine and blankets.

Montserrat – Poor country case study

Montserrat – Ledc Case Study from donotreply16 Mount St Helens – Rich country case study Picture Mount St. Helens is one of five volcanoes in the Cascade Range in Washington State, USA. The volcano erupted at 8:32am on 18th May 1980.

Effects – An earthquake caused the biggest landslide ever recorded and the sideways blast of pulverised rock, glacier ice and ash wiped out all living things up to 27km north of the volcano. Trees were uprooted and 57 people died.

Immediate responses – helicopters were mobilised to search and rescue those in the vicinity of the catastrophic blast. Rescuing survivors was a priority, followed by emergency treatment in nearby towns. Air conditioning systems were cleaned after by clogged with ash and blocked roads were cleared. Two million masks were ordered to protect peoples lungs.

Long-term responses – Buildings and bridges were rebuilt. Drains had to be cleared to prevent flooding. The forest which was damaged had to be replanted by the forest service. Roads were rebuilt to allow tourists to visit. Mount St. Helens is now a major tourist attraction with many visitor centres.

Iceland – Rich country case study Picture Location: Iceland lies on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a constructive plate margin separating the Eurasian plate from the North American plate. As the plates move apart magma rises to the surface to form several active volcanoes located in a belt running roughly SW-NE through the centre of Iceland. Eyjafjallajokull (1,666m high) is located beneath an ice cap in southern Iceland 125km south east of the capital Reykjavik

The Eruption: In March 2010, magma broke through the crust beneath Eyjafjallajokull glacier. This was the start of two months of dramatic and powerful eruptions that would have an impact on people across the globe. The eruptions in March were mostly lava eruptions. Whilst they were spectacular and fiery they represented very little threat to local communities, However, on 14th April a new phase began which was much more explosive. Over a period of several days in mid-April violent eruptions belched huge quantities of ash in the atmosphere.

Local impacts and responses: The heavier particles of ash (such as black gritty sand) fell to the ground close to the volcano, forcing hundreds of people to be evacuated (immediate response) from their farms and villages. As day turned to night, rescuers wore face masks to prevent them choking on the dense cloud of ash. These ash falls, which coated agricultural land with a thick layer of ash, were the main primary effects of the eruption. One of the most damaging secondary effects of the eruption was flooding. As the eruption occurred beneath a glacier, a huge amount of meltwater was produced. Vast torrents of water flowed out from under the ice. Sections of embankment that supported the main highway in Southern Iceland were deliberately breached by the authorities to allow floodwaters to pass through to the sea. This action successfully prevented expensive bridges being destroyed. After the eruption, bulldozers were quickly able to rebuild the embankments and within a few weeks the highway was reconstructed.

Local impacts: 800 people evacuated Homes and roads were damaged and services (electricity & water) disrupted Local flood defences had to be constructed Crops were damaged by heavy falls of ash Local water supplies were contaminated with fluoride from the ash

National impacts: Drop in tourist numbers – affected Iceland’s economy as well as local people’s jobs and incomes Road transport was disrupted as roads were washed away by floods Agricultural production was affected as crops were smothered by a thick layer of ash Reconstruction of roads and services was expensive

International impacts: Over 8 days – some 100,000 flights were cancelled 10 million air passengers affected Losses estimated to be £80 million Industrial production halted due to a lack of raw materials Fresh food could not be imported Sporting events such as the Japanese Motorcycle grand prix, Rugby leagues challenge cup and the Boston Marathon were affected

International impacts and responses: The eruption of Eyjafjallajokull became an international event in mid-April 2010 as the cloud of fine ash spread south-eastwards toward the rest of Europe. Concerned about the possible harmful effects of ash on aeroplane jet engines, large sections of European airspace closed down. Passenger and freight traffic throughout much of Europe ground to a halt. The knock-on effects were extensive and were felt across the world. Business people and tourists were stranded unable to travel in to or out of Western Europe. Industrial production was affected as raw materials could be flown in and products could not be exported by air. As far away as Kenya, farm workers lost their jobs or suffered pay cuts as fresh produce such as flowers and bean perished, unable to be flown to European supermarkets. The airline companies and airport operators lost huge amounts of money. Some people felt that the closures were an over-reaction and that aeroplanes could fly safely through low concentrations of ash. However, a scientific review conducted after the eruption concluded that under the circumstances it had been right to close the airspace. Further research will be carried out as a long-term response to find better ways of monitoring ash concentrations and improving forecast methods.

Icelanders race to repair damage after volcano damage

Thursday's  volcanic eruption in Iceland

Icelanders were working Friday to get hot water supplies fixed in thousands of houses a day after a third volcanic eruption in two months, as experts said the eruption seemed to be ending.

Repairs on the network—which is also a source of heating—went on overnight in temperatures as low as minus 14 degrees Celsius (6.8 degrees Fahrenheit), utility company HS Orka said.

The lava flow that destroyed the pipes the previous day had made it difficult for the repair teams to gain access, it added on its website.

Experts at the Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) however said Friday that volcanic activity was significantly down from the previous day's eruption.

"No eruptive activity was observed in a drone-flight over the eruptive site carried out at noon (GMT) today," the IMO said in a statement.

"This suggests that the eruption is ending. Volcanic tremor is no longer being detected on seismic sensors," it added.

An estimated 15 million cubic meters of lava flowed out in the first seven hours of the eruption, early Thursday, it said.

Hot-water heating cut

The lava spewed out from a new volcanic fissure on Iceland's Reykjanes peninsula in the country's southwest.

It cut the supply of hot water, which is also used to heat houses, in the southern part of the peninsula, known as Sudurnes, home to some 28,000 inhabitants.

Dramatic images showed lava flowing over a road leading to Iceland's famed Blue Lagoon geothermal spa, which had been evacuated, and the flow also crossed over a key water pipe.

"The plan is to fix the problem hopefully in the next few hours," Hjordis Gudmundsdottir, spokeswoman for Iceland's Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management, told AFP Friday.

"It will take a few hours to put the hot water back in the system."

In the meantime, schools, public pools and sport facilities in the region were closed on Friday, she added.

Electricity is still working, but the authorities are urging people in the region to limit consumption.

This was the third eruption since December, in the same area as two previous ones, on December 18 and the second on January 14, near the fishing village of Grindavik.

The 4,000 residents of Grindavik had to be evacuated on November 11 after hundreds of earthquakes damaged buildings and opened up huge cracks in roads, shrouding the village's future in doubt.

The eruptions were some 40 kilometers southwest of the capital Reykjavik.

Explore further

Feedback to editors

iceland volcano case study a level

Saturday Citations: Einstein revisited (again); Atlantic geological predictions; how the brain handles echoes

9 minutes ago

iceland volcano case study a level

CERN researchers measure speed of sound in the quark–gluon plasma more precisely than ever before

19 hours ago

iceland volcano case study a level

NASA's final tally shows spacecraft returned double the amount of asteroid rubble

iceland volcano case study a level

Harnessing light with hemispherical shells for improved photovoltaics

iceland volcano case study a level

New species of pirate spiders discovered on South Atlantic island

20 hours ago

iceland volcano case study a level

Bacteria in the Arctic seabed are active all year round, researchers find

iceland volcano case study a level

Martians wanted: Apply here now for NASA's simulated yearlong Mars mission

iceland volcano case study a level

5,000 atoms are all you need: The smallest solid-state ferroelectricity

iceland volcano case study a level

Stabilizing mRNA vaccines for delivery to cells

21 hours ago

iceland volcano case study a level

Measuring neutrons to reduce nuclear waste: New technique paves the way for improved nuclear waste treatment facilities

22 hours ago

Relevant PhysicsForums posts

Iceland warming up again - quakes swarming.

Feb 15, 2024

Unlocking the Secrets of Prof. Verschure's Rosetta Stones

Feb 13, 2024

Two Mag 5 Earthquakes on Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Feb 11, 2024

90,000-year-old human footprints found on Moroccan beach

Feb 8, 2024

Evidence of large submarine volcanic eruption 520 kyrs ago in Aegean

Jan 16, 2024

What happens to the IR radiation that the Greenhouse gases don't absorb?

Jan 14, 2024

More from Earth Sciences

Related Stories

iceland volcano case study a level

A volcano in Iceland is erupting again, spewing lava and cutting heat and hot water supplies

iceland volcano case study a level

Volcano lava flows into Icelandic village, engulfing homes

iceland volcano case study a level

Iceland faces daunting period after lava from volcano destroys homes in fishing town, president says

Jan 15, 2024

iceland volcano case study a level

How an unprecedented magma river surged beneath an Iceland town

Feb 9, 2024

iceland volcano case study a level

Volcanic eruption in Iceland subsides, though scientists warn more activity may follow.

iceland volcano case study a level

Iceland volcano eruption calms as lava flow eases

Dec 19, 2023

Recommended for you

iceland volcano case study a level

How do oceans start to close? New study suggests the Atlantic may 'soon' enter its declining phase

iceland volcano case study a level

Common mineral in red soils tends to lock away trace metals over time, study finds

iceland volcano case study a level

Study shows methane emissions from wetlands increase significantly over high latitudes

iceland volcano case study a level

Study finds oxygen rise in the tropical upper ocean during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum

iceland volcano case study a level

Mapping how deforested land in Africa is used

iceland volcano case study a level

New 'time travel' study reveals future impact of climate change on coastal marshes

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

  • Open access
  • Published: 13 February 2024

Health impact of the Tajogaite volcano eruption in La Palma population (ISVOLCAN study): rationale, design, and preliminary results from the first 1002 participants

  • María Cristo Rodríguez-Pérez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0119-4276 1 ,
  • Manuel Enrique Fuentes Ferrer 1 ,
  • Luis D. Boada 2 , 3 ,
  • Ana Delia Afonso Pérez 4 ,
  • María Carmen Daranas Aguilar 5 ,
  • Jose Francisco Ferraz Jerónimo 6 ,
  • Ignacio García Talavera 1 , 7 ,
  • Luis Vizcaíno Gangotena 5 ,
  • Arturo Hardisson de la Torre 8 ,
  • Katherine Simbaña-Rivera 2 , 9 &
  • Antonio Cabrera de León 1 , 10  

Environmental Health volume  23 , Article number:  19 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

233 Accesses

2 Altmetric

Metrics details

The eruption of the Tajogaite volcano began on the island of La Palma on September 19, 2021, lasting for 85 days. This study aims to present the design and methodology of the ISVOLCAN (Health Impact on the Population of La Palma due to the Volcanic Eruption) cohort, as well as the preliminary findings from the first 1002 enrolled participants.

A prospective cohort study was conducted with random selection of adult participants from the general population, with an estimated sample size of 2600 individuals. The results of the first 857 participants are presented, along with a group of 145 voluntary participants who served as interveners during the eruption. Data on epidemiology and volcano exposure were collected, and participants underwent physical examinations, including anthropometry, blood pressure measurement, spirometry, and venous blood extraction for toxicological assessment.

In the general population ( n  = 857), descriptive analysis revealed that the participants were mostly middle-aged individuals (50.8 ± 16.4), with a predominance of females. Before the eruption, the participants resided at a median distance of 6.7 km from the volcano in the Western region and 10.9 km in the Eastern region. Approximately 15.4% of the sample required evacuation, whose 34.8% returning to their homes on average after 3 months. A significant number of participants reported engaging in daily tasks involving cleaning of volcanic ash both indoors and outdoors. The most reported acute symptoms included ocular irritation, insomnia, mood disorders (anxiety-depression), and respiratory symptoms. Multivariate analysis results show that participants in the western region had a higher likelihood of lower respiratory tract symptoms (OR 1.99; 95% CI:1.33–2.99), depression and anxiety (OR 1.95; 95% CI:1.30–2.93), and insomnia (OR 2.03; 95% CI:1.33–3.09), compared to those in the eastern region.

The ongoing follow-up of the ISVOLCAN cohort will provide valuable insights into the short, medium, and long-term health impact related to the material emitted during the Tajogaite eruption, based on the level of exposure suffered by the affected population.

Peer Review reports

Approximately one billion people worldwide live within the influence zone of an active volcano, at about 100 km [ 1 ], and thus could be affected by the effects of an eruption at some point. On La Palma Island (Canary Islands, Spain), a volcanic eruption began on September 19, 2021, in the Valle de Aridane, lasting for 85 days and resulting in the formation of a new volcano named Tajogaite. The eruption generated a significant expulsion of volcanic ash and gas emissions, leading to days of highly unfavourable air quality with elevated toxicity levels in the breathable air [ 2 ].

Volcanic eruptions can have a wide range of deleterious effects on human health. Despite their often-short duration, the emission of toxic gases, particles, and ash deposits can persist in the local environment for years or even decades, being mobilized and redistributed by climatic factors or human activities [ 3 ]. Gases emitted during volcanic activity, such as CO and CO 2 , SO 2 , HCl, HF, H 2 S, radon, and permanent degassing, have the potential to impact human health [ 4 ]. There are several causes for degassing, both natural and anthropogenic sources whose contribute to air pollution. In La Palma, several years before the Tajogaite eruption, the concentration of CO 2 were recorded in Cumbre Vieja, beeing related, in much more amount, to anthropogenic and other natural sources than magmatic emissions, accounting for only 4% [ 5 ]. Acute and prolongated exposure of individuals to high concentrations of CO 2 is uncommon and incompatible with life. Nevertheless, long-term exposure occurs at low concentrations and outdoor is more frequent. In this context, physiological adaptation mechanisms are activated, promote oxidation followed by the release of proinflammatory cytokines; these mechanisms entail the development of a pro-inflammatory status and, consequently, the onset of diseases related to such conditions [ 6 ]. Particularly harmful to health is the atmospheric transformation of SO 2 and other gases into particulate matter (PM) [ 7 ]. This transformation process is influenced by various factors, including the emission plume’s characteristics and maturity, as well as meteorological variables such as humidity, solar radiation, and temperature [ 7 ].

Previous studies have demonstrated an increase in acute symptoms of ocular irritation and upper respiratory tract issues [ 8 ], as well as elevated respiratory morbidity and visits to hospital or primary care services due to exacerbation of respiratory pathologies associated with peaks in airborne emissions of these types of toxic gases or particles [ 3 , 9 , 10 ]. Many of these associations are independent of age, sex, education level, and smoking habits, exhibiting a dose-response gradient [ 11 ]. Furthermore, exposure has been linked to increased cardiovascular morbidity and all-cause mortality [ 12 ]. Few studies have assessed long-term chronic health effects, and the scarce longitudinal studies have methodological limitations due to the analysis of samples from hospitalized patients, low reliability of data sources in some countries, and short follow-up periods, often not exceeding six months. Consequently, longitudinal studies with extended follow-up periods in the general population are needed to analyse the occurrence of deleterious medium to long-term effects.

In January 2022, the ISVOLCAN study (Health Impact on the Population of La Palma caused by the Tajogaite Volcano Eruption) was started. This study involves the recruitment and follow-up of a cohort from the general adult population to assess the impact of the Tajogaite volcano eruption on the health of the population of the island. The purpose of this paper is to present the methodology of ISVOLCAN study and provide a preliminary analysis of the data obtained from the first 1002 enrolled participants.

Study design

This is an observational epidemiological study, using a prospective cohort design, targeting the general adult population residing in multiple municipalities on La Palma Island. Additionally, a group of volunteers from professional personnel with access to the exclusion zone or operations centre during the eruption (including civil protection workers, Spanish Security Forces, Emergency Services, scientists, etc.) was included. The study consists of two different stages: the first stage involved recruitment and baseline assessments conducted from 2022 to 2023, while the second phase will involve follow-up of the cohort at 2, 5, and 10-year intervals.

The study has obtained authorization from the health authorities and received a favorable decision from the Provincial Ethics and Medicines Committee (ref. CHUNSC_2021_88). Participants were required to provide written consent before being included in the study.

La Palma Island is a volcanic island located in the Atlantic Ocean, within the Canary Islands archipelago, Spain. Geographically, it is positioned at 28° 26’ N latitude and 14° 01’ W longitude from Madrid. Covering an approximate area of just over 700 km 2 , it ranks as the fifth-largest island in this archipelago [ 13 ]. The island counts with a population of 83,439 inhabitants [ 14 ]. Los Llanos de Aridane in the west side, is the city with highest population density, followed of Santa Cruz de La Palma. The Canarian Public Health System provides healthcare to the entire population through a hospital and a network of primary care health centres throughout the island.

On September 19, 2021, the eruption started in the western region of La Palma Island, in Cabeza de Vaca area, on the western flank of the Cumbre Vieja ridge, belowing to the municipality of El Paso. This volcanic process persisted for 85 days until its conclusion on December 13 of the same year. It consisted in a long-lasting, hybrid eruption associated with multiple eruptive styles (effusive, lava fountains, ash emissions, strombolian explosions) with the formation of cones of various heights, widespread tephra blankets and extensive lava-flow fields and was characterized by simultaneous effusive and explosive activity [ 15 ]. The eruption affected the Valle de Aridane, which was greatly impacted by the lava flows, gases, and particulate matter emitted during the eruption. The newly formed volcano, named Tajogaite, reached a maximum altitude of 1131 m above sea level and extended 200 m from the pre-eruptive topography, with its base situated at 1080 m above sea level [ 16 ].

Subjects, sampling, inclusion and exclusion criteria

Participants from the general population.

The sample selection was conducted using a random, stratified approach based on age and gender groups, according to the 2020 municipal census data of the population residing in the western region (El Paso, Los Llanos, Tazacorte, and Puntagorda) and eastern region (Mazo, Santa Cruz de La Palma, and San Andrés y Sauces) of the island.

The sample was drawn from the health card registry of the Canarian Health Service, which is continuously updated and includes all individuals above the age of 18 who were residents on the island during the eruption and provided informed consent to participate in the study.

To ensure the achievement of the intended objectives, the population of the western region, closer to the eruption, was oversampled. The sample sizes for each municipality in the western region were as follows: Los Llanos de Aridane: 820; El Paso: 405; Tazacorte: 305; Puntagorda: 205. In contrast, for the eastern region, the sample sizes were 505 for Santa Cruz de La Palma, 205 for Mazo, and 155 for San Andrés y Sauces.

Highly exposed participants (intervening personnel)

Using a non-probabilistic convenience sampling method, participants in the study also included members of various professional and volunteer groups involved in different tasks related to the eruption and who had access to the volcano’s exclusion zone or operations centre. Although access to these areas was controlled and followed safety and protection measures, we expected that these participants from the different groups were highly exposed during their workdays throughout the nearly four-month duration of the eruption.

An initial sample size of 1207 persons was estimated (precision 3%, confidence level 95%) based on an expected prevalence of acute respiratory symptoms (the most frequently associated with such phenomena). Considering an anticipated participation rate in this type of study of 60–70% and a dropout rate during follow-up exceeding 30%, the sample was increased to 2600 individuals.

Recruitment and baseline assessment

In January 2022, telephone contact with the selected sample started. Those who agreed to participate in the study were administered an epidemiological questionnaire specifically designed for this purpose. The questionnaire was completed by Primary Care professionals, including both physicians and nurses, who were trained for this study. Subsequently, participants were scheduled to visit the health centres in the two regions for physical examinations, pulmonary function tests, and venous blood extraction, all conducted by qualified nursing staff.

An electronic questionnaire was designed in accordance with the recommendations of the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN), an organization under the World Health Organization (WHO), aimed at standardizing epidemiological protocols for assessing health effects in volcanic eruptions [ 17 ].

The questionnaire is available on the website of the study ( www.estudioisvolcan.com ) and included sociodemographic data (age, gender, employment status, occupation type, educational level), variables related to the level of exposure to the volcano (residence before and during the eruption, need for evacuation and subsequent return to the usual residence, access to exclusion zones, involvement in activities related to volcanic ash cleaning, daily hours spent in outdoor environments, and use of masks and eyeglasses for protection), pre-existing comorbidities (lung diseases, cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, blood hypertension, etc.), acute symptoms (cough, sneezing, wheezing, headache, fatigue, tearing, ocular irritation, etc.), suffering from any respiratory infection (flu, COVID 19 or cold) and visits to emergency services during the eruption, lifestyle factors (smoking habits and leisure-time physical activity). Additionally, the questionnaire included a shortened version of the scale for assessing post-traumatic stress disorder, adapted for the Spanish population [ 18 ].

During the visit to the health centre, measurements of weight, height, waist circumference, heart rate, and two separate blood pressure (separately by 10 min) were recorded. Additionally, a venous blood sample of approximately 20 mL was collected, divided into 4 tubes (2 tubes for complete blood count and 2 tubes for biochemistry), for the toxicological determination of persistent contaminants in whole blood and serum.

The tubes for complete blood were stored in a refrigerator at 4 °C, while the biochemistry tubes were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10–15 min, and then allowed to rest for 20–25 min until clot retraction. Daily, the samples were transported to the Laboratory of the University Hospital of La Palma and finally stored at the Research Unit of the Hospital Nuestra Señora de Candelaria in Tenerife at -80 °C for the sera and − 20 °C for the whole blood.

In the blood samples, organic contaminants, primarily polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), will be quantitatively determined due to their possible formation in eruptive processes and their known carcinogenic and teratogenic properties. Among them, the following will be determined: naphthalene, acenaphthene, acenaphthylene, fluorene, anthracene, phenanthrene, pyrene, fluoranthene, benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(ghi)perylene, indene(1,2,3,cd)pyrene, and dibenzo(ah)anthracene. Additionally, inorganic contaminants that may have been emitted in these eruptive processes will be quantified in whole blood. This includes: (a) trace elements (Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Se, and Zn); (b) toxic elements listed in the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) inventory, such as Ag, Al, As, Be, Cd, Hg, Pb, Pd, Sb, Sr, Th, Ti, Tl, U, and V; (c) rare earth elements and other minor elements (Au, Bi, Ce, Dy, Eu, Er, Ga, Gd, Ho, In, La, Lu, Nb, Nd, Os, Pr, Pt, Ru, Sm, Sn, Tb, Ta, Tm, Y, and Yb). All these analyses will be performed using gas chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) for organic contaminants and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for inorganic contaminants. The determinations will be carried out in the Toxicology laboratories of the two public universities of the Canary Islands.

Additionally, each participant underwent forced spirometry to measure lung function following the recommendations by the American Thoracic Society and the European Respiratory Society during the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV-1) and forced vital capacity (FVC), among other parameters, were measured. Spirometry tests were conducted using a portable spirometer acquired specifically for this study (Sibelmed, model Datospir Touch 3000).

Statistical analysis

Categorical variables will be presented with their distribution of absolute and relative frequencies. Quantitative variables that follow a normal distribution will be summarized using the mean and standard deviation (± SD), while those that do not follow this distribution will be presented with the median and interquartile range (IQR). To calculate the distance to the volcano, participant home coordinates during the eruption were obtained using the geodist command in STATA, and elevation was obtained using the elevatr Statistical package in R.

A comparison of the distribution of sociodemographic characteristics, variables related to the level of exposure during the eruption and previous comorbidities of the participants in the general population between the two regions (west and east) was performed. For categorical variables, the Chi-square test were used. Comparisons of means between two regions were performed by Student’s t-test if the variables followed a normal distribution, or by the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test for asymmetric variables. Finally, multivariate logistic regression models were performed to evaluate the independent effect of the place of residence (west vs. east) on acute symptomatology during the eruption. Those variables considered to be of interest were introduced as adjustment variables. The crude and adjusted odds ratios (OR) are presented together with their 95% confidence intervals (CI). Statistical significance was assumed as p  < 0.05. Analyses were performed using the statistical package SPSS 26.0® (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

Preliminary results of the descriptive analysis are presented for the first 1002 participants: 857 participants from the ISVOLCAN cohort, representing the general adult population of La Palma Island, and 145 intervening personnel who accessed the exclusion zone during the eruption.

Figure  1 shows the flowchart of the study sample. As of December 31, 2022, a total of 2355 phone calls were made to randomly selected individuals from the general population, and 857 participants were included (36.4% of those initially selected). In addition to the general population sample, the interveners ( n  = 145) were mainly composed of members of State Security Forces, Emergency Services, and cleaning workers.

figure 1

Flowchart of the ISVOLCAN study cohort until December 31, 2022

Table  1 describes the sociodemographic characteristics of the analysed sample from the general population. The mean age was 50.8 years (± 16.4), with a higher proportion of females. The majority had secondary education, and 20.8% of the sample were unemployed before the eruption; a similar situation was found in the two regions. During the eruption 662 (77.2%) resided in the western region and 198 (22.8%) in the eastern region. The group of participants from the western region presented a higher percentage of women and a higher percentage of unemployed people significantly.

In the interveners, the mean age was slightly younger (45.7 years (± 11.8)) with a predominance of males (supplemental Table 1 ).

Figure  2 shows the geolocation of the ISVOLCAN cohort based on the coordinates of participants addresses before and during the eruption in the general population. It can be observed that during the eruption, there was a displacement of residents from the Valle de Aridane area to other parts of the island.

figure 2

Place of residence of ISVOLCAN cohort participants: ( a ) before and ( b ) during Tajogaite volcano eruption

Characteristics related to exposure during the volcanic eruption in general population are described in Table  2 . The median distance from participants residence to the volcano during the eruption was 7.1 km (IQR:6.1–9.3); for the western region, it was 6.7 km (IQR: 4.9–7.3), while for the eastern region, it was 10.9 km (IQR: 9.3–12.7). Most of the population in the sample engaged in cleaning up volcanic ash, both inside and outside their homes, using tools with a high capacity for particle projection, such as brooms and blowers. During the eruption, 85% of the general population always used masks when outdoors, with FFP2 masks being the most used. In the bivariate analysis, it found that the location of the usual residence with less distance to the volcano and higher altitude, a more frequent cleaning of volcanic ash both inside and outside the homes and a more daily hours spent in outdoor environments were registered between participants from western region compared to those from the eastern one. The frequency of use of face masks and protective eyeglasses in outdoor environments did not differ between the two regions.

The intervining group showed a similar distribution to the general population regarding variables related to volcanic ash cleaning (location, tools used, and cleaning frequency), as well as mask usage frequency and type in outdoor environments (supplemental Table 2).

Table  3 shows baseline characteristics in general population related to lifestyle and pre-existing comorbidities before the eruption and use of healthcare resources and acute symptoms reported by participants during the eruption. The most prevalent pre-eruption comorbidities included blood hypertension (24.3%), depression and anxiety. The most frequently reported acute symptoms by the general population were eye irritation (45.9%), insomnia (44.9%), anxiety and depression (44.7%), and respiratory symptoms. In addition, 12.1% of the sample reported having an emergency visit at a hospital or primary care centres. The main reason for primary care visits was anxiety or depression, while hospital emergency visits were mainly due to osteomuscular traumas. Only 1.8% of the participants reported being hospitalized during the eruption, with surgical intervention being the primary reason. Participants from the western region compared to those from the eastern one were, significantly, more current smokers. Regarding acute symptomatology, western participants showed, in a statistically significant way, higher prevalence of nausea and vomiting, headache, lower respiratory tract symptoms (cough, dyspnea or wheezing), chest pain, insomnia, depression and anxiety, ocular, nasal and ear symptoms.

In the interveners, the acute symptoms reported during the eruption were like those of the general population, as well as the utilization of healthcare services. However, the percentage of hospitalizations was lower in this group (supplemental Table 3).

Table  4 shows the adjusted and unadjusted effect of region of residence during the volcano eruption (west/east) in general population on each of the most prevalent acute symptoms that showed statistically significant differences between the two regions. Age, gender, education level, employment, distance to the volcano, ash cleaning, type of cleaning tool used, daily hours in outdoor environments and type of smoker were entered as adjustment variables in all multivariate models. In addition, for the acute symptom lower respiratory tract symptoms, we adjusted for having suffered from any respiratory infection (influenza, COVID 19 or cold) during the months of the volcano eruption. Adjusted multivariate analysis results show that participants in the western region had a higher likelihood of lower respiratory tract symptoms (OR 1.99; 95% CI:1.33–2.99), depression and anxiety (OR 1.95; 95% CI:1.30–2.93) and insomnia (OR 2.03; 95% CI:1.33–3.09), compared to those in the eastern region.

This article presents the methodology of the ISVOLCAN study, as well as a descriptive analysis of the baseline characteristics of the first 1002 participants (857 participants from the general adult population of La Palma Island, and 145 interveners, potentially highly exposed).

After the initial telephone contact was established with the selected individuals from the general population of the island, an initial response rate of 36.4% was observed. Although a higher participation rate was expected, the conditions of uncertainty and vulnerability experienced by the population immediately after the eruption was extinguished and during the subsequent months, generated certain limitations. At the beginning of the ISVOLCAN study, part of the evacuated population was still displaced or involved in bureaucratic and administrative procedures related to the disaster.

As mentioned previously, epidemiological data for each participant were collected through a health questionnaire. Analysis of this data revealed that the participants had a mean age within the working-age range, with a predominance of women and most individuals who had completed secondary education. The recruited population mainly resided in the municipalities affected by the volcano, with the highest number of displacements during the eruption occurring among the inhabitants of Los Llanos de Aridane, which coincided with the movement of the lava flows. Regarding the intervining group, it was observed that they were younger and predominantly male, reflecting the male dominance in certain professions related to the field of public safety.

Factors related to the level of exposure of the participants were also considered in the analysis. It was observed that the proximity to the volcano was about 7 km, even less for the residents of Valle de Aridane. This proximity is unusual compared to other volcanic phenomena documented in scientific literature. For instance, in the case of Holuhraun, population centres were located at least 100 km away from the volcano, with only a few isolated farms found at a closer distance, approximately 70 km [ 19 ]. Another recent example concerns the Nyragongo or Nyamulagira volcanoes in the Republic of Congo, which affected a population of nearly one million people around the volcano, at approximately 15–30 km [ 20 ]. Therefore, in La Palma Island, the local population resided much closer to the eruption at the time compared to other mentioned populations.

Various health risks associated with the size of PM and their potential environmental impact on agriculture and water reservoirs have been reported [ 4 ]. Indeed, the deposition of several heavy metals, such as chromium and arsenic, in soils near volcanic eruptions has been documented, both of which have carcinogenic effects at certain levels [ 19 ]. In line with this, a very recent publication shows the chemical characterization of ash samples from Tajogaite eruption, founding that the most of the water-soluble compounds were SO 4 , F, Cl, Na, Ca, Ba, Mg and Zn; worryingly, the authors conclude that F and Cl concentration may exceed both the recommended levels for irrigation purpose and for health [ 21 ].

Moreover, the size of PM is of critical importance; particles smaller than 10 μm (PM 10 ) can penetrate and reach the alveolar region of the lungs [ 3 ], while those smaller than 2.5 μm (PM 2.5 ) may even cross the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream. There is an extensive body of evidence in relation to the health effects of the long-term exposure to PM 2.5 or lesser. The main reported effects are on all-causes and cause-specific mortality [ 22 ], incidence of cardiovascular or respiratory diseases [ 19 , 23 ], incidence of endocrine and metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes [ 24 ] and incidence of lung cancer among others, even at concentrations below current EU limit values and possibly WHO Air Quality Guidelines [ 25 ]. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are no published studies that analyze the potential effects of degassing exposure on the population of La Palma, neither before nor during the eruption.

During the Tajogaite eruption, daily air quality monitoring was carried out through eight stations located in different points of Valle de Aridane and the eastern region of the island. Based on these records, the average levels of SO 2 concentration in the island were recently published, and it was observed that the threshold recommended as safe by the European Commission was exceeded in the Valle area during 1 to 4% of the eruption duration. Furthermore, during the first month of the eruption, the threshold of 400 μm-3 was frequently exceeded, especially in the later stages of the phenomenon, in contrast to the emissions of particulate matter [ 2 , 26 ].

It is noteworthy to mention that, due to the recommendations of authorities and scientists, as well as the activation of volcanic emergency protocols, the integrity of the population was successfully safeguarded. However, it is reasonable to assume that the displacements of the evacuated population during the eruption could have had an impact on their health. Throughout the volcanic event, the island’s population received daily information about the necessary preventive measures in each municipality, based on air quality and the evolution of volcanic ash. In the case of our sample from the general population, 15.4% were evacuated during the eruption, and less than half of the evacuated individuals returned to their usual homes after an average of approximately 3 months.

On the other hand, exposure to volcanic gases and ash has been widely associated with increased respiratory morbidity and short-term irritation in the respiratory tract, ocular mucosa, and skin due to their chemical and mechanical irritant effects [ 3 , 19 , 27 ]. In the case of ISVOLCAN cohort participants, ocular and upper respiratory tract irritation were the most frequent acute symptoms. These findings are consistent with epidemiological studies conducted in the general population, both during the acute phase [ 28 ] and 6–9 months after exposure [ 11 ], as well as in highly exposed professionals [ 29 ]. Other studies evaluating the reasons and number of visits to hospital emergency departments have detected an increase in visits due to respiratory diseases and ocular disorders [ 30 , 31 ].

During the volcanic eruption, a significant proportion of the participants carried out ash cleaning tasks both indoors and outdoors, thereby increasing their exposure to the emitted material. As the eruption coincided with the second year of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the population already had access to masks and was used to wearing them; the majority of the participants stated using masks when outdoors, with FPP2 masks being the most commonly used in these environments during the eruption, as they have demonstrated effectiveness in protecting against the inhalation of volcanic ash [ 32 ]. Certainly, it is imperative to maintain a surveillance over this excessive exposure in the coming years to comprehensively gauge potential medium and long-term repercussions. In the aftermath of the Tajogaite volcanic eruption, numerous supplementary investigations have been instigated, in addition to ISVOLCAN, with the aim of enhancing the monitoring of the health of the local population. Notably, the ASHES study is among these initiatives, with its principal focus being the assessment of respiratory health outcomes associated with exposure to volcanic emissions [ 33 ].

Moreover, prior investigations following volcanic eruptions have demonstrated a notable rise in the occurrence of psychiatric disorders within the general population [ 34 ]. Evacuated individuals, in particular, exhibited a pronounced prevalence of post-traumatic stress and depressive symptoms [ 35 ]. During the eruption period, nearly half of the individuals reported insomnia and symptoms indicative of mood disorders, such as anxiety or depression. Notably, those who had to undergo evacuation displayed a higher incidence of these symptoms. The eruption caused significant disruptions in the daily routines of the population in specific municipalities, especially those directly affected by evacuation orders.

The elevated prevalence of anxiety and depression can be related to several factors, including increased work demands during the eruption and the uncertainty concerning personal health, the well-being of others, property, and crop security, as well as the outlook for the future. Furthermore, given the substantial number of seismic events and the explosive nature of the eruption, it is plausible that these anxiety-related symptoms contributed to the substantial percentage of reported insomnia among the affected population.

Adjusted multivariate analysis results show that participants in the western region compared to those in the eastern region had a higher likelihood of lower respiratory tract symptoms, depression and anxiety, and insomnia. These results are similar to those found in the few epidemiological studies conducted in the general population that evaluate symptomatology, acute or short-term, during the eruption according to the level of exposure. These results are in concordance to previous evidence [ 11 , 36 ].

Furthermore, the recognition of volcanic eruptions as sources of toxic elements underscores the environmental exposure faced by populations residing in close proximity to these emission sites. Environmental studies conducted worldwide, including the Canary Islands, have consistently identified volcanic eruptions as significant contributors of inorganic elements known to be toxic to humans, such as Se, Cd, Pb and Hg [ 37 , 38 ]. Notably, recent findings from the ISVOLCAN study have documented elevated levels of Fe, Al, Ti, V, Ba, Pb, Mo, Co, and Rare Earths in banana crops on the island during the eruption period [ 39 ].

However, studies focused on monitoring toxin levels in populations affected by eruptions are limited, primarily due to the challenge of simultaneously quantifying these inorganic toxins in blood samples collected from affected individuals. Furthermore, the necessary analytical methods are mostly expensive, limiting their inclusion into epidemiological studies. In this context, our research team, as experts in toxicological analysis of both major inorganic and organic pollutants, is presently conducting determinations using venous blood samples from study participants, although results are pending.

The main limitation of the ISVOLCAN study, as is common in cohort studies, is its high cost, which is exacerbated in our case by logistical difficulties inherent in a fragmented territory like the Canary Islands, limiting the transfer of biological samples and human or material resources between islands. Additionally, while the participants were randomly selected from the general population, there may exist a selection bias if those who chose not to participate had some differential characteristics (e.g., older age, pre-existing health issues, etc.) compared to the participants, which could limit the detection of certain relevant associations.

Furthermore, the epidemiological data relies on self-reporting by the participants, which could introduce information biases affecting the validity of the results. Additionally, the high percentage of losses during follow-up, related to this type of design, could generate a survival bias. To address these concerns, several methodological strategies have been implemented. The sample size was increased to more than double the initial estimate, that is why recruitment and inclusion of participants are ongoing at this moment. Moreover, as a strength of the study, data collection started as soon as possible after the eruption was finished, carried out by personnel specially trained to ensure rigor and thoroughness in the process, following the recommendations of the IVHHN regarding epidemiological data records for such phenomena. Additionally, prior to analysis, the data undergo rigorous quality control and verification processes.

Given that the data come from a randomized sample of the general population of the island, followed over several years, this study will allow for the detection of causal associations. It is worth noting that the inclusion of interveners in the ISVOLCAN cohort provides a significant area of study since they can be considered as individuals with high prior exposure.

The ISVOLCAN study has been meticulously designed as a 10-year follow-up study aimed at assessing the medium to long-term health impact on the adult general population of La Palma Island following the recent eruption of the Tajogaite volcano. Despite currently being in a recruitment phase, the study has successfully completed several stages of biological sample collection and biomedical data gathering. Once the baseline measurements are finalized and toxicological determinations are conducted, data from over 2000 individuals with varying levels of exposure during the eruption are expected to be obtained. Lastly, in our knowledge this study is the first to publish data related to the short-term health impact on the population of La Palma following the eruption of the Tajogaite volcano.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not openly available due to reasons of sensitivity and are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Carbon monoxide

Carbon dioxide

Sulfur dioxide

Hydrogen chloride

Hydrogen fluoride

Hydrogen sulfide

Particulate matter

International Volcanic Health Hazard Network

World Health Organization

Primarily polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

Standard deviation

Interquartile range

Particulate matter ≤ 2.5 μm

Particulate matter < 10 μm

Freire S, Florczyk AJ, Pesaresi M, Sliuzas R. An Improved Global Analysis of Population Distribution in proximity to active volcanoes, 1975–2015. ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf. 2019;8(8):341.

Article   Google Scholar  

Milford C, Torres C, Vilches J, Gossman AK, Weis F, Suárez-Molina D, et al. Impact of the 2021 La Palma volcanic eruption on air quality: insights from a multidisciplinary approach. Sci Total Environ. 2023;869:161652.

Article   PubMed   ADS   CAS   Google Scholar  

Horwell CJ, Baxter PJ. The respiratory health hazards of volcanic ash: a review for volcanic risk mitigation. Bull Volcanol. 2006;69(1):1–24.

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Hansell AL, Horwell CJ, Oppenheimer C. The health hazards of volcanoes and geothermal areas. Occup Environ Med. 2006;63(2):149–56.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

Padrón E, Pérez N, Rodríguez F, Melián G, Hernández PA, Sumino H. Dynamics of diffuse carbon dioxide emissions from Cumbre Vieja volcano, La Palma, Canary Islands. Bull Volcanol. 2015;77:28.

Zappulla D. Environmental stress, erythrocyte dysfunctions, inflammation, and metabolic syndrome: adaptations to CO 2 increases? J Cardiometab Syndr. 2008;3(1):30–4.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Stewart C, Damby DE, Horwell CJ, Elias T, Ilyinskaya E, Tomašek I, et al. Volcanic air pollution and human health: recent advances and future directions. Bull Volcanol. 2021;84(1):11.

Gudmundsson G. Respiratory health effects of volcanic ash with special reference to Iceland. A review. Clin Respir J. 2011;5(1):2–9.

Higuchi K, Koriyama C, Akiba S. Increased mortality of respiratory diseases, including lung cancer, in the area with large amount of ashfall from Mount Sakurajima volcano. J Environ Public Health. 2012;2012:257831.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Longo BM, Yang W. Acute bronchitis and volcanic air pollution: a community-based cohort study at Kilauea Volcano, Hawai’i, USA. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2008;71(24):1565–71.

Article   PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

Carlsen HK, Hauksdottir A, Valdimarsdottir UA, Gíslason T, Einarsdottir G, Runolfsson H, et al. Health effects following the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption: a cohort study. BMJ Open. 2012;2(6):e001851.

Oudin A, Carlsen HK, Forsberg B, Johansson C. Volcanic Ash and Daily Mortality in Sweden after the Icelandic volcano eruption of May 2011. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2013;10(12):6909–19.

Instituto Geográfico Nacional. Instituto Geográfico Nacional - Servicio de Documentación. 2022 [cited 2023 Jul 26]. La Palma (Isla). Mapas topográficos. 1996. Available from: https://www.ign.es/web/catalogo-cartoteca/resources/html/017034.html .

Instituto Canario de Estadística ISTAC. Official Population Figures Referring to Revision of Municipal Register 1 January, 2022. Canary Islands Statistic Institute, Spain. [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Sep 17]. Available from: http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/estadisticas/ .

Bonadonna C, Pistolesi M, Dominguez L, Freret-Lorgeril V, Rossi E, Fries A, et al. Tephra sedimentation and grainsize associated with pulsatory activity: the 2021 Tajogaite eruption of Cumbre Vieja (La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain). Front Earth Sci. 2023;11:1166073.

Gobierno de Canarias. PEVOLCA - Comité científico [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Jul 28]. Available from: https://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/infovolcanlapalma/pevolca/ .

The International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN). Standardized Epidemiological Study Protocol to Assess Short-term Respiratory and Other Health Impacts in Volcanic Eruptions [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Jul 19]. Available from: https://www.ivhhn.org/uploads/IVHHN%20Basic%20Protocol.pdf .

Bobes J, Calcedo-Barba A, García M, François M, Rico-Villademoros F, González MP, et al. [Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of 5 questionnaires for the evaluation of post-traumatic stress syndrome]. Actas Esp Psiquiatr. 2000;28(4):207–18.

PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

Carlsen HK, Ilyinskaya E, Baxter PJ, Schmidt A, Thorsteinsson T, Pfeffer MA, et al. Increased respiratory morbidity associated with exposure to a mature volcanic plume from a large Icelandic fissure eruption. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):2161.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   ADS   CAS   Google Scholar  

Michellier C, Katoto P, de Dramaix MC, Nemery M, Kervyn B. Respiratory health and eruptions of the Nyiragongo and Nyamulagira volcanoes in the Democratic Republic of Congo: a time-series analysis. Environ Health. 2020;19(1):62.

Ruggieri F, Forte G, Bocca B, Casentini B, Bruna Petrangeli A, Salatino A, Gimeno D. Potentially harmful elements released by volcanic ash of the 2021 Tajogaite eruption (Cumbre Vieja, La Palma Island, Spain): implications for human health. Sci Total Environ. 2023;905:167103.

Article   PubMed   ADS   Google Scholar  

Chen J, Hoek G. Long-term exposure to PM and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int. 2020;143:105974.

Wolf K, Hoffmann B, Andersen ZJ, Atkinson RW, Bauwelinck M, Bellander T, et al. Long-term exposure to low-level ambient air pollution and incidence of stroke and coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of six European cohorts within the ELAPSE project. Lancet Planet Health. 2021;5(9):e620–32.

Yang Z, Mahendran R, Yu P, Xu R, Yu W, Godellawattage S, Li S, Guo Y. Health effects of Long-Term exposure to ambient PM 2.5 in Asia-Pacific: a systematic review of Cohort studies. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2022;9(2):130–51.

Hvidtfeldt UA, Severi G, Andersen ZJ, Atkinson R, Bauwelinck M, Bellander T. Long-term low-level ambient air pollution exposure and risk of lung cancer - A pooled analysis of 7 European cohorts. Environ Int. 2021;146:106249.

Filonchyk M, Peterson MP, Gusev A, Hu F, Yan H, Zhou L. Measuring air pollution from the 2021 Canary Islands volcanic eruption. Sci Total Environ. 2022;849:157827.

Hansell A, Oppenheimer C. Health hazards from volcanic gases: a systematic literature review. Arch Environ Health. 2004;59(12):628–39.

Carlsen HK, Gislason T, Benediktsdottir B, Kolbeinsson TB, Hauksdottir A, Thorsteinsson T, et al. A survey of early health effects of the Eyjafjallajokull 2010 eruption in Iceland: a population-based study. BMJ Open. 2012;2(2):e000343.

Carlsen HK, Aspelund T, Briem H, Gislason T, Jóhannsson T, Valdimarsdóttir U, et al. Respiratory health among professionals exposed to extreme SO2 levels from a volcanic eruption. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2019;45(3):312–5.

Baxter PJ, Ing R, Falk H, French J, Stein GF, Bernstein RS, et al. Mount St Helens eruptions, May 18 to June 12, 1980. An overview of the acute health impact. JAMA. 1981;246(22):2585–9.

Lombardo D, Ciancio N, Campisi R, Di Maria A, Bivona L, Poletti V, et al. A retrospective study on acute health effects due to volcanic ash exposure during the eruption of Mount Etna (Sicily) in 2002. Multidiscip Respir Med. 2013;8(1):51.

Steinle S, Sleeuwenhoek A, Mueller W, Horwell CJ, Apsley A, Davis A, et al. The effectiveness of respiratory protection worn by communities to protect from volcanic ash inhalation. Part II: total inward leakage tests. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2018;221(6):977–84.

Ruano-Ravina A, Acosta O, Díaz Pérez D, Casanova C, Velasco V, Peces-Barba G, et al. A longitudinal and multidesign epidemiological study to analyze the effect of the volcanic eruption of Tajogaite volcano (La Palma, Canary Islands). The ASHES study protocol. Environ Res. 2023;216(Pt 2):114486.

Shore JH, Tatum EL, Vollmer WM. Evaluation of mental effects of disaster, Mount St. Helens eruption. Am J Public Health. 1986;76(3 Suppl):76–83.

Goto T, Wilson JP, Kahana B, Slane S. The Miyake Island Volcano Disaster in Japan: loss, uncertainty, and Relocation as predictors of PTSD and Depression. J App Soc Psychol. 2006;36(8):2001–26.

Shimizu Y, Dobashi K, Hisada T, Ono A, Todokoro M, Iijima H, et al. Acute impact of volcanic ash on asthma symptoms and treatment. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2007;20(2 Suppl 2):9–14.

Ilyinskaya E, Mason E, Wieser PE, Holland L, Liu EJ, Mather TA, et al. Rapid metal pollutant deposition from the volcanic plume of Kīlauea, Hawai’i. Commun Earth Environ. 2021;2(1):1–15.

Google Scholar  

Rodríguez Martín JA, Nanos N, Miranda JC, Carbonell G, Gil L. Volcanic mercury in Pinus canariensis. Naturwissenschaften. 2013;100(8):739–47.

Rodríguez-Hernández A, Díaz-Díaz R, Zumbado M, Bernal-Suárez M, del Acosta-Dacal M, Macías-Montes A. Impact of chemical elements released by the volcanic eruption of La Palma (Canary Islands, Spain) on banana agriculture and European consumers. Chemosphere. 2022;293:133508.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors give special thanks to Marta Rodríguez Pérez for her invaluable contribution in the technical support of this study. She has managed the contacts with selected persons and scheduled participants. She also designed all the electronic documents to recording data from the participants and has carried out the data quality control of the database of the cohort. Many thanks too to the Primary Care health staff of La Palma, nurses and family physicians, around the island, for their help to disseminate the study and to administer epidemiological questionnaires to the participants.

Fundación Canaria Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Canarias (FIISC: ST22/07). Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid (PI22/00395).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University Hospital Nuestra Señora de Candelaria and Primary Care Authority of Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain

María Cristo Rodríguez-Pérez, Manuel Enrique Fuentes Ferrer, Ignacio García Talavera & Antonio Cabrera de León

Toxicology Unit, Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain

Luis D. Boada & Katherine Simbaña-Rivera

Spanish Biomedical Research Centre in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBERObn), Madrid, Spain

Luis D. Boada

Primary care health centre of Breña Alta. Health Services Authority of La Palma, Breña Alta, Spain

Ana Delia Afonso Pérez

University hospital of La Palma. Health Services Authority of La Palma, Breña Alta, Spain

María Carmen Daranas Aguilar & Luis Vizcaíno Gangotena

Primary care health centre of Breña Baja. Health Services Authority of La Palma, Breña Alta, Spain

Jose Francisco Ferraz Jerónimo

Respiratory Department, University Hospital Nuestra Señora de Candelaria., Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain

Ignacio García Talavera

Toxicology Department, Medical School, University of La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain

Arturo Hardisson de la Torre

Centro de Investigación para la Salud en América Latina (CISeAL), Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador (PUCE), Quito, Ecuador

Katherine Simbaña-Rivera

Preventive Medicine Department, Medical School, University of La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain

Antonio Cabrera de León

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Conception and design: M.C.R.P, L.D.B, A.H.T, A.C.L, I.G.T. Study recruitment and sample processing: A.D.A.P, M.C.D.A, J.F.F.J, L.V.G. Samples management and analysis: I.G.T, L.D.B, A.H.T, L.V.G. Acquisition of epidemiological data: M.C.R.P, A.D.A.P, M.C.D.A, J.F.F.J. Complete data curation and analysed: M.C.R.P, M.E.F.F. Interpretation of the data: M.C.R.P, M.E.F.F, A.C.L, L.D.B, K.S.R. Draft the article: M.C.R.P, M.E.F.F, A.C.L, L.D.B, K.S.R. All authors revised and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to María Cristo Rodríguez-Pérez .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate, consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Rodríguez-Pérez, M.C., Ferrer, M.E.F., Boada, L.D. et al. Health impact of the Tajogaite volcano eruption in La Palma population (ISVOLCAN study): rationale, design, and preliminary results from the first 1002 participants. Environ Health 23 , 19 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-024-01056-4

Download citation

Received : 19 September 2023

Accepted : 20 January 2024

Published : 13 February 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-024-01056-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

  • Volcanic eruptions
  • Epidemiology and Public Health
  • Morbidity Associated with volcanic eruption
  • Mortality Associated with volcanic eruption
  • Non-anthropogenic toxic contaminants

Environmental Health

ISSN: 1476-069X

iceland volcano case study a level

National Geographic content straight to your inbox—sign up for our popular newsletters here

What you need to know about volcano tourism in Iceland

As seen in recent eruptions, seismic activity in the country is hotting up. From travel advice to ‘volcano tourism’, here’s what you need to know about visiting Iceland.

Volcanic activity in Iceland has been rumbling on for months, centred around the Reykjanes Peninsula near Reykjavík, in the southwest of the country. After multiple earthquakes, the most recent series of eruptions kicked off at the end of 2023, when an explosion along a 2.5-mile fissure sent lava into the air a couple of miles northeast of the fishing village of Grindavík; another followed shortly afterwards.

Now, a new fissure near Sýlingarfell, northeast of Grindavík, has begun spewing lava and smoke.

What’s the background?

In 2021, after 6,000 years lying dormant, the Fagradalsfjall volcanic system on the Reykjanes Peninsula sprang back into life with the appearance of a 600ft-long fissure. Until that moment, the region hadn’t seen an eruption for over 800 years. Three small blasts followed (in 2021, 2022 and the summer of 2023), each producing fountains of fire.

A nine-mile dike (an underground pathway that allows magma to travel towards the surface) on the Reykjanes Peninsula was discovered to be the underlying cause, and since then there have been further eruptions that have reached the town of Grindavík. If additional volcanic activity occurs, it’s likely to take place in this region.

What does it mean for travellers?

So far, the greatest disruption has been to the residents of Grindavík, who were evacuated prior to the December eruption. Following recent blasts, some homes here have been destroyed by lava. The nearby Blue Lagoon, the country’s most popular attraction, has briefly closed, on and off, as a precautionary response to the eruptions, but has not been otherwise impacted. Reykjavík and the international airport, meanwhile, were unaffected. 

Some passengers on flights that have flown over eruption sites have been treated to spectacular scenes from their window seats. 

‘Volcano tourists’ have since converged on the area, hoping for a glimpse of the lava. However, Icelandic police warned people to “think four times” before attempting to get close to the sites, after an exhausted hiker had to be rescued by helicopter.

What happens next?

As volcanoes can be unpredictable, it’s hard to say with 100% certainty. “Most volcanologists seem to agree that this period of volcanic activity is going to go on for many years, if not decades,” says Dr Robin Andrews, a volcanologist. But, “it’s difficult to study the systems where there’s no central volcano.” 

Is there likely to be a repeat of the 2010 ash cloud?

Experts in the fields of volcanology and aviation agree that a repeat of the events that followed the Eyjafjallajökull eruption likely won’t happen again. Back then, a six-day shutdown of European airspace, due to the presence of ash in quantities sufficient to cause engine failure in planes, caused the cancellation of some 100,000 flights. 

The fact that the volcanoes involved in the most recent eruptions don't open onto a large ice sheet, as Eyjafjallajökull does, minimises the amount of ash likely to be ejected — when ice melts into a volcano, the magma cools rapidly and forms fine ash particles. Additionally, the world of aviation has seen advancements in technology since 2010, and the European Union Aviation Safety Agency has confirmed it’s better prepared for a volcanic ash event.

Is it safe to go to Iceland?

Volcanic activity is currently largely isolated to the Reykjanes Peninsula. Beyond this region, Iceland is safe and its main tourist sites remain open.  

Dr Andrews recommends that anyone planning to travel to the country monitors the advice of the Icelandic Meteorological Office , which shares comprehensive data on the latest activity. The Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office travel pages are also updated as conditions change. While in Iceland, monitor local news and heed local authority guidance. 

“There’s a lot of uncertainty,” says Snorri Valsson, of the Icelandic Tourist Board. “It’s a localised seismic event limited to the area around Grindavík — in the rest of the island, it’s business as usual. But it’s understandable that some people might be disturbed by the news.”

What about insurance?

Always make sure you take out comprehensive insurance when booking a trip to ensure you’re covered before departure. At least £2,500 is a good level of protection for short-haul trips. Ensure the policy covers repatriation in the event you need to head home early.

Read This Next

Wildlife and rewilding in romania's carpathian mountains.

  • Best of the World

Meet our 2024 Travelers of the Year

  • 2022 in Review

These are the best travel photos of 2022

Photo story: horseback adventures through southern patagonia.

  • Environment

History & Culture

  • History Magazine
  • History & Culture
  • Paid Content
  • Coronavirus Coverage
  • Mind, Body, Wonder
  • Terms of Use
  • Privacy Policy
  • Your US State Privacy Rights
  • Children's Online Privacy Policy
  • Interest-Based Ads
  • About Nielsen Measurement
  • Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information
  • Nat Geo Home
  • Attend a Live Event
  • Book a Trip
  • Inspire Your Kids
  • Shop Nat Geo
  • Visit the D.C. Museum
  • Learn About Our Impact
  • Support Our Mission
  • Advertise With Us
  • Customer Service
  • Renew Subscription
  • Manage Your Subscription
  • Work at Nat Geo
  • Sign Up for Our Newsletters
  • Contribute to Protect the Planet

Copyright © 1996-2015 National Geographic Society Copyright © 2015-2024 National Geographic Partners, LLC. All rights reserved

Read the Latest on Page Six

latest in US News

Jewish teachers angry at 'one-sided' talks in NYC school where students chanted 'destroy Israel!'

Jewish teachers angry at 'one-sided' talks in NYC school where...

Brooklyn pol appears at anti-Israel event sponsored by group being probed for supporting Hamas

Socialist Brooklyn pol appears at anti-Israel event sponsored by...

Migrants will 'never leave NYC's care': Critics fear as lefty pols renew push for unlimited shelter stays

Migrants will 'never leave NYC's care': Critics fear as lefty...

Nikki Haley gearing up for last stand against Trump in South Carolina: 'She has nothing to lose'

Nikki Haley gearing up for last stand against Trump in South...

NYC teacher bizarrely brags about sex lives of swinging parents at 'cool' elementary school

NYC teacher bizarrely brags about sex lives of swinging parents...

Lyin' expelled ex-Rep. George Santos makes Jimmy Kimmel's 'wishes come true' by suing host over misusing Cameo clips

Lyin' expelled ex-Rep. George Santos makes Jimmy Kimmel's 'wishes...

Sylvester Stallone had Navy SEALs train his daughters before they moved to NYC

Sylvester Stallone had Navy SEALs train his daughters in...

NYC mom fakes COVID cough to escape deranged knife-wielding menace: 'What I want is reform'

NYC mom fakes COVID cough to escape deranged knife-wielding...

Iceland declares state of emergency after volcano erupts for third time in 2 months.

  • View Author Archive
  • Get author RSS feed

Thanks for contacting us. We've received your submission.

GRINDAVIK, Iceland –   A volcano located in southwestern Iceland near the evacuated seaside town of Grindavík began erupting for the third time since December early Thursday morning, forcing the closure and evacuation of the popular tourist destination Blue Lagoon and prompting officials to declare a state of emergency.

According to the Icelandic Meteorological Office  (IMO), intense seismic activity began to shake the region around Mount Sylingarfell around 5:30 a.m., and the eruption began about 30 minutes later.

A large fissure about 2 miles long opened up and stretched from Mount Sylingarfell to the eastern areas of Mount Stora-Skogfell, with lava shooting about 260 feet into the air, according to the IMO.

Activity, though, has started to decrease, and the IMO said the probability of new fissures opening up has also decreased.

The eruption was located to the northeast of Grindavík, which remained a ghost town after residents were told to flee their homes late last year when earthquake activity began to dramatically increase and large cracks began to open up across roads in the region.

Molten lava overflowing a road, near Blue Lagoon in western Iceland, due to volcanic eruption on Reykjanes Peninsula in February 2023.

The first eruption occurred on Dec. 18, and the second eruption occurred a month later in January. During the second eruption, lava made its way into Grindavik and destroyed several homes and structures.

Iceland’s Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management said a  state of emergency was declared Thursday  after consulting with emergency officials in the area.

Officials said that the main pipeline that delivers hot water to the region was destroyed after lava flowed over it, causing a lack of hot water.

Start your day with all you need to know

Morning Report delivers the latest news, videos, photos and more.

Thanks for signing up!

Please provide a valid email address.

By clicking above you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy .

Never miss a story.

Residents have been urged to conserve as much water and electricity as possible.

Electric ovens can be used to provide heat, but officials said each home can only use one because the area’s electrical grid won’t withstand more use.

“If everyone starts the ovens at the same time, the system can fail,” officials said in a news release. “It is therefore important that residents follow instructions and only use one electrical stove for heating.”

According to national public broadcaster  RÚV , Keflavik International Airport, the country’s main international airport, is also now without hot water.

Lava flowing on a road with smoke and steam rising in the air, caused by a volcanic eruption in Iceland, Feb. 8, 2024.

RÚV said the lack of hot water has had a “limited effect on the airport’s operations, but developments are closely monitored.”

Airport officials said the eruption itself has so far not impacted any arriving or departing flights, but passengers scheduled to travel into or out of the airport should monitor their airlines in the event they decide to delay or cancel flights.

Iceland’s Blue Lagoon closed, evacuated due to eruption

The popular tourist destination Blue Lagoon announced that it had evacuated and shut down operations because of the eruption as a precautionary measure.

In a statement posted to its website,  Blue Lagoon said  all guests with bookings during the closure would be contacted, and the resort would continue to monitor guidelines and recommendations from emergency officials.

“This commitment aligns with our unwavering dedication to ensuring the safety and wellbeing of our valued guests and staff,” the Blue Lagoon said. 

Share this article:

Molten lava overflowing a road, near Blue Lagoon in western Iceland, due to volcanic eruption on Reykjanes Peninsula in February 2023.

Advertisement

iceland volcano case study a level

IMAGES

  1. Geography A level Iceland volcanic eruption A3 case study poster

    iceland volcano case study a level

  2. Iceland volcano case study- Eyjafjallajokull 2010 by Humanities Zone

    iceland volcano case study a level

  3. Case Study on Eyjafjallajokull 2010 eruption Iceland

    iceland volcano case study a level

  4. Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland 2010 (Volcano Case Study)

    iceland volcano case study a level

  5. A-Level Eyjafjallajokull Iceland Volcano Case Study

    iceland volcano case study a level

  6. Iceland volcano case study

    iceland volcano case study a level

VIDEO

  1. Icelandic Eruption Danger Area Increases Again!

  2. Iceland volcano threat level downgraded

COMMENTS

  1. Eyjafjallajokull Case Study

    Eyjafjallajokull erupted between March to May 2010. Why did Eyjafjallajokull erupt? Iceland lies on the Mid Atlantic Ridge, a constructive plate margin separating the North American Plate and the Eurasian plate. The two plates are moving apart due to ridge push along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

  2. PDF Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland

    Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland - 2010 Type of Plate Boundary The volcano is situated on a constructive plate boundary between the North American and Eurasian plate . Eyjafjallajökull is a 500m long fissure volcano , that erupts basalt. Basaltic lava is fluid in nature. There is a glacier above the volcano. Hazards

  3. Volcanoes case study

    Volcanoes case study 1 -Eyjafjallajökull Tectonic setting of the hazard The nature of the hazard (type, magnitude, frequency) Vulnerability Capacity to cope (prediction, prevention, preparation) Institutional capacity The impact of the event (social, economic, environmental), in the short and longer term

  4. PDF IB Geography Hazards & Disasters Case Study Summary Sheet for

    Date. 14-20 April 2010 saw the most active eruptions and emissions of gas and ash. By 20th May, the activity had calmed to such as point that no material was detected being ejected from the volcano. Duration. Eruption was declared officially over on 20th October 2010, six months after it started. Why did it happen?

  5. PDF Volcanic Hazard Case Study: Eyjafjallajökull eruption, Iceland 2010

    Eyjafjallajökull eruption, Iceland 2010: Suggested Answers Describe the location 5 of the case study. Eyjafjallajökull is a small ice-cap in southern Iceland. The name means 'island mountain glacier'. Below the toxic gas emissions, etc. ice is a volcano. Iceland is in the Atlantic Ocean. Identify two primary impacts of the eruption.

  6. Eyjafjallajokull 2010 volcanic eruption case study

    This award-winning geography case study video resource reflects on the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in 2010 and looks ahead to potential volcanic eruptions in Iceland. In this video, we cover: - The causes and impacts of the eruption, with visits to some of the localities directly affected. - Volcano monitoring and preparedness. - The impacts ...

  7. Case Study

    Case Study - The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull Background Information. Location: Eyjafjallajökull is located in southern Iceland. Level of Development in Iceland: Iceland is a developed country with a strong economy. It has advanced infrastructure, healthcare, education, and a high standard of living.

  8. A Level Geography Volcanoes- Eyjafjallajökull Eruption 2010 Case Study

    62 terms Terms in this set (14) Where did this happen? Eyjafjallajökull volcano, South Iceland in the East Volcanic Zone When did this happen? Early March to mid-April 2010 What is the GDP per capita of Iceland? $59,260 per capita (HIC) What were the physical causes of the eruption? Divergent plate boundary.

  9. PDF Eyjafjallajokull a Global Hazard Impacting on Global Networks

    The on-going eruption of the Eyjafjallajokull volcano is a geophysical event (Photograph 1). Iceland is located at a constructive plate boundary in the Atlantic ocean. Two tectonic plates are diverging due to the movement of convection currents in the Earth's asthenosphere. This creates a zone of activity called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where ...

  10. AQA Geography

    Created by: Elliemaybl Created on: 30-01-20 20:18 Fullscreen CASE STUDY: EYJAFJALLAJOKULL ERUPTION, ICELAND. Location: The volcano is on the island of Iceland, which is part of Europe and situated immediately South of the Artic circle. Located on the North American plate (moving west) Move apart between 2-5cm per year.

  11. A-Level Eyjafjallajokull Iceland Volcano Case Study

    A-Level Volcano Case Studies Range of Case Studies from MEDCs and LEDCs Full of Facts, Causes, Impacts and Responses! Can be used for short, long and essay questions! Great for Teachers and Students! was Report this resource to let us know if it violates our terms and conditions.

  12. Eyjafjallajokull case study

    Eyjafjallajokull: A geography case study. A free 15-minute video from Discover the World Education on the causes and impacts of the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland, in 2010. The video also considers volcano monitoring and preparedness, and the potential impacts of the future eruption of nearby Katla. It is suitable for key stages 3-5 ...

  13. Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland 2010 (Volcano Case Study)

    Case study of the Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland in 2010. This is the ninth video for the AQA GCSE 9-1 Geography course, and the ninth video of the Cha...

  14. Iceland eruption

    JessSaint Terms in this set (45) Where was the Icelandic eruption located? -Iceland is on a tectonically active area -Iceland is bisected by the Mid-Atlantic ridge -eruption was South of Iceland When was the Iceland ecruption? -20th March 2010- changes began - deformation of land and magma rising to the surface

  15. A Level Geography Eyjafjallajökull Case Study Flashcards

    Eyjafjallajokull is located below a glacier. The Eyjafjallajökull volcano erupted in 920, 1612 and again from 1821 to 1823 when it caused a glacial lake outburst flood (or jökulhlaup). It erupted three times in 2010—on 20 March, April-May, and June. The March event forced a brief evacuation of around 500 local people.

  16. Eyjafjallajökull Icelandic Eruption 2010

    A case study on the Eyjafjallajökull Icelandic Eruption of 2010. Suitable for GCSE, AS Level, A Level Geography and beyond. Complete with stunning images. 1 of 15 Download Now What's hot 20) The Great Rift Valley Plate Tectonics 9 Similar to Eyjafjallajökull Icelandic Eruption 2010 (20) Tectonics Medc case study iceland RESTLESS EARTH GCSE

  17. Geography A level Iceland volcanic eruption A3 case study poster

    For the topic on natural hazards I created this poster and achieved an A* in my Geography A level, including the highest mark nationally for the AQA physical geograp. International; Resources; ... Geography A level Iceland volcanic eruption A3 case study poster (Eyjafjallajokull ) Subject: Geography. Age range: 16+ Resource type: Assessment and ...

  18. Volcano case studies

    Picture Mount St. Helens is one of five volcanoes in the Cascade Range in Washington State, USA. The volcano erupted at 8:32am on 18th May 1980. Effects - An earthquake caused the biggest landslide ever recorded and the sideways blast of pulverised rock, glacier ice and ash wiped out all living things up to 27km north of the volcano.

  19. Volcanoes and Ice Caps: Case Study of Iceland

    Volcanoes and ice caps: case study of Iceland. The main emphasis of this article is on volcanic activity in Iceland so it will be of most use to the students of the AS and A-level physical option Hazards. There is some background material on ice caps on the island, and so it will also be of some interest to students of the core topic Glacial ...

  20. Volcanoes and volcanic eruptions

    Case study - eruption in a developed country: La Palma La Palma is one of the Canary Islands which lie in the Atlantic Ocean. The Canary Islands are an autonomous region of Spain. The Cumbre...

  21. Geography A level- Volcanoes Case Study Flashcards

    2000 displaced, 700 homes destroyed, electricity shortages, toxic gases caused irritation to skin and eyes. What economic impacts were caused by Kilauea ? museum damaged, several highways destroyed, closure of Hawaii volcano national park. How many died in Kilauea explosion? 0. Short term responses of Iceland ?

  22. Is Iceland entering a new volcanic era?

    Iceland is no stranger to volcanoes - it is one of the most volcanically active places in the world. ... But if a fissure opens up inside the barriers - as was the case in Grindavik in January ...

  23. Is Iceland entering a new volcanic era?

    Iceland is no stranger to volcanoes - it is one of the most volcanically active places in the world. ... But if a fissure opens up inside the barriers - as was the case in Grindavik in January ...

  24. Icelanders race to repair damage after volcano damage

    A volcano in Iceland is erupting again, spewing lava and cutting heat and hot water supplies. Feb 8, 2024. ... Frequent marine heat waves in the Arctic Ocean will be the norm, says new study. 6 ...

  25. Health impact of the Tajogaite volcano eruption in La Palma population

    Background The eruption of the Tajogaite volcano began on the island of La Palma on September 19, 2021, lasting for 85 days. This study aims to present the design and methodology of the ISVOLCAN (Health Impact on the Population of La Palma due to the Volcanic Eruption) cohort, as well as the preliminary findings from the first 1002 enrolled participants. Methods A prospective cohort study was ...

  26. Volcanic Case Studies (A-Level Edexcel) Flashcards

    1 / 26 Flashcards Test Match Q-Chat Created by Darth-Chloe Terms in this set (26) Developed Country Eruption Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland Eyjafjallajokull year 2010 Eyjafjallajokull, why? Constructive margin and mid-ocean ridge Eyjafjallajokull, Magma type? Basaltic magma Eyjafjallajokull, type of volcano? Stratovolcano Eyjafjallajokull VEI 4

  27. What you need to know about volcano tourism in Iceland

    Volcanic activity in Iceland has been rumbling on for months, centred around the Reykjanes Peninsula near Reykjavík, in the southwest of the country. ... "it's difficult to study the systems ...

  28. Iceland declares state of emergency after third volcano eruption

    A volcano located in southwestern Iceland began erupting for the third time since December early Thursday morning. AFP via Getty Images. The first eruption occurred on Dec. 18, and the second ...